Document (Web, 2007-)
Year
2007-
Text
Worldcat/OCLC (WC)
Type
Web
Chronology Entries (215)
| # | Year | Text | Linked Data |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1550-1575 | South China in the sixteenth century : being the narratives of Galeote Pereira, Fr. Gaspar da Cruz, O.P., Fr. Martin de Rada, O.E.S.A. (1550-1575). (London : Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1953). | |
| 2 | 1776 |
Hirschfeld, Christian Cajus Lorenz. Widerlegung des herrschenden Begriffs von den chinesischen Gärten [ID D26952]. Quellen : Chambers, William. Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste. Description [ID D1819]. Le Comte, Louis. Nouveaux mémoires sur l'état présent de la Chine... [ID D1771]. Pauw, Cornelius de. Recherches philosophiques sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois [ID D1861]. Er schreibt : Die chinesischen Gärten oder das, was man unter diesem Namen reizend genug geschildert hat, ist nicht bloss ein Gegenstand der Bewunderung, sondern auch der Nachahmung geworden. Wenn auch gleich schon Nachdenken und Genie, ohne Unterstützung eines besondern Beispiels, auf die Erfindung der neuen Manier leiten konnten, die man in England aufgenommen und die sich von da weiter zu verbreiten angefangen hat ; so ist es doch wahrscheinlich, dass die Nachrichten von den Gärten in China viel dazu beygetragen haben. Wenigstens ist gewiss, dass die neue Manier in England sich um eben die Zeit am meisten hob, als sich der Ruhm der orientalischen Gärten ausbreitete. Nicht minder ist gewiss, dass der Engländer von einem grossen Vorurtheil für die Gärten in China bezaubert ist, und dass der Franzose und mit ihm der Deutsche sich diesem Vorurtheil zu überlassen anfängt. Man verlangt jetzt nicht etwa Gärten, die mit eigener Überlegung, mit besserm Geschmack, als die alten, angelegt wären ; man verlangt chinesische, oder chinesisch-engländische Gärten. Wie aber, wenn diese Raserei einen unsichern Grund hätte, wie so manche andere Raserei der Mode ? Wenn die chinesischen Gärten, wovon man so entzücket ist, die man so hitzig nachzuahmen strebt, nicht vorhanden wären, wenigstens nicht so vorhanden wären, wie man sich einbildet ? – das wäre doch sonderbar. Freilich wäre es so, und nicht weniger lächerlich, etwas haben nachahmen wollen, wovon man überführt wird, dass es nicht da ist. Als ich zuerst die Beschreibungen der chinesischen Gärten las, ging es mir, wie vermuthlich manchem andern Leser mehr. Ich fand darin wahre und hohe Schönheiten der Natur, nur das davon abgerechnet, was dem morgenländischen Geschmack eigen ist oder zu seinen Ausschweiffungen gehört. Ich ward von so vielen reizenden Scenen entzückt, und vergass bei dieser Bewegung nachzudenken, ob sich auch alles würklich so verhalten mögte. Ein wiederholtes Lesen liess mir mit einer gelassenen Behagung mehr Ruhe, zu überlegen. Ich fieng an, gegen die Wirklichkeit solcher Gärten hie und da einen Zweifel zu finden, und konnte mich nicth enthalten, einige davon zu äussern. Bei einer nähern Vergleichung verschiedener einsichtsvollen Schriftsteller, die von China handeln, habe ich Gründe entdeckt, die mich noch mehr an dem Daseyn solcher Gärten zweifeln machen, wie man uns die chinesischen beschreibt. Ich theile sie hier zur weitern Berutheilung mit. China ist, nach den zuverlässigen Zeugnissen der Reisenden, bey weitem nicht so sehr angebauet, als man oft vorgegeben hat. Sogar nahe um Peking gibt es noch einige meilenlange Wüsten und Moräste. Die entlegenen Provinzen liegen fast alle ganz wüste, zum Theil so wüste, dass Tieger und andere wilde Thiere in Menge umherschwärmen. Der Handel versammelt die Einwohner um die Hauptstadt und schönen Flüsse her, wodurch ein so starker Zusammenfluss von Menschen entsteht, dass die oft einreissende Hungersnoth die schrecklichsten Verwüstungen angerichtet hat. In diesen Gegenden, wo sich die Thätigkeit der Nation am meisten äussert, müsste man die so sehr gerühmten Gärten suchen, wenn anders die nothwendige Sorge, durch Ackerbau den harten Bedürfnissen abzuhelfen, noch Zeit und Ruhe zur Anlegung ländlicher Lustplätze verstattete. Je weiter man in die Provinzen hineinkommt, desto weniger trift man bebauete Länder an; nicht die Hälfte des Erdreichs ist genutzt ; nur selten erscheint ein Dorf. Auch weiss man, dass die Chineser wenig Liebe zum Landbau besitzen, die überdies mit dem heissen Wuchergeist, einer fast allgemeinen Seuche der Nation, nicht vereinbar ist. Comte, du Halde und andere glaubwürdige Zeugen rühmen zwar den Anbau der Küchengewächse in China, wovon die Gärten nie leer sind, weil sich besonders der gemeine Mann davon ernährt. Allein sie bemerken zugleich, dass an der Menge und Manigfaltigkeit der Gewächse und Früchte mehr der gute Erdboden, als die Geschicklichkeit der Einwohner Antheil hat. Die meisten Früchte, setzen sie hinzu, kommen den unsrigen nicht gleich, weil die Chineser nicht die Kunst verstehen oder sich nicht die Mühe nehmen, die Baumfrüchte zu verbessern und ihnen einen mehr anziehenden Geschmack zu geben. Alle ihre Sorgfalt von dieser Seite schränket sich auf den Kornbau und Reisbau ein. Von der Botanik wissen sie fast nichts. Es ist ausgemacht, dass keine der schönen Künste bei den Chinesern zur Volkommenheit emporgestiegen ist. Von der Perspectiv haben sie nicht den geringsten Begrif. In der Malerei klecken sie Landschaften, worin weder Sehepunkt noch Ferne ist. Die dem Gesicht sich entfernende Linien sind ihnen ebenso unbekannt, als der Punkt, worin sie sich vereinigen müssen, indem sie nicht die geringste Kentnis von den Regeln haben, denen die Würkungen des Lichts unterworfen sind. Mit den Gegenstellungen oder den grossen Massen von Schatten sind sie, wie man leicht hinzu denken kan, ebenfals ganz unbekant. Sie wissen nichts von der Kunst, die Farben zu brechen und zu versetzen. Sie musten also sehr verlegen sey, wenn sie den Prospect eines Gartens vorstellen solten. Ihre Zeichnung ist, wie man weiss, sehr schlecht. Nicht einmal den Blumen, die doch so häufig gemalt werden, verstehen sie die Richtigkeit der Zeichnung zu geben. Ihre wilde Einbildungskraft zieht sie von dem Studium der Natur ab, die eine ruhige und bedächtige Betrachtung erfordert ; wozu die Chineser so wenig, als andere morgenländische Völker, aufgelegt sind. Schon aus diesen allgemeinen Bemerkungen wird man eben keine grosse Erwartung schöpfen, dass die schöne Gartenkunst von den Chinesern geliebt und mit Glück getrieben werde, viel weniger dass sie Gärten von so vorzüglichen Schönheiten besitzen, wie man uns überreden will. China ist kein Reich, das erst seit einigen Jahren von den Europäern besucht wurde, oder wohin nur Leute ohne Einsicht, ohne Beobachtungsfeist, ohne Geschmack gekommen wären. Woher komt es, das so viele Reisebeschreiber, so vieles und seit einer so langen Zeit, von China berichten, ohne der so herlichen Gärten der Nation zu erwähnen, und dass man erst in der letzten Hälfte des gegenwärtigen Jahrhunderts angefangen, sie mit einer Art von Begeisterung zu rühmen ? Vielleicht waren sie in den ältern Zeiten noch nicht vorhanden, nicht einmal hie und da in einem vorbereitenden Anfang vorhanden. Allein in diesem Jahrhundert müsten sie doch da seyn. Es sollen ja Gärten seyn, die bei der Nation gewöhnlich, nicht blos diesem oder jenem Grossen eigen sind, Gärten, welche die Nation ohne Beihülfe, ohne Beispiel durch ihr eigenes Genie hervorgebracht hat. Es lässt sich nicht wohl denken, dass solche Gärten so ganz neu seyn oder so verborgen liegen solten, dass sie nur erst vor etwa dreissig Jahren von einem Reisenden hätten bemerket werden können. Wenigstens schon hie und da haben sie längst vorhanden seyn müssen. Die chinesische Nation ist unstreitig keine solche, die auf einmal plötzliche Fortgänge in einer Wissenschaft oder Kunst gemacht hätte ; ihr Genie hat immer nur einen schleichenden Gang genommen, nie einen glücklichen Spring gewagt ; das Vorurtheil für alles, was bei ihr alt geworden, unterstützt ihre natürliche Trägheit. Die paradiesischen Gärten hätten also schon lange blühen müssen, in einer so auffallenden Schönheit, mit so eigenen hervorstechenden Reitzen, dass jeder fremde Auge sie mit Bewunderung hätte wahrnehmen müssen. Und doch ein so tiefes Stillschweigen von so vielen Reisenden, die sie sehen konnten und sehen musten. Vielleicht waren diese Reisende nicht alle Kenner. Der grösste Theil der nach China reisenden Gelehrten bestand aus französischen Jesuiten, die vielleicht entweder keine Einsicht in die Gartenkunst haben oder voll Vorutheil für die Manier ihres Vaterlandes seyn konten. Es mag seyn. Aber so hätten sie doch wenigstens das Eigenthümliche und das Abweichende in dem chinesischen Geschmack bemerken können. Ausserdem waren verschiedene von diesen Missionarien geschickte Architecten und Maler. Die hohen Schönheiten der Natur, welche die chinesischen Gärten darstellen sollen, sind jedem Auge fühlbar. Und der französische Jesuit hätte hier immer eine Ausnahme seyn sollen ? Man weiss, wie sorgfältig diese Missionarien gewesen, alles Merkwürdige in China aufzuzeichnen und ihrem Hofe zu berichten ; man weiss, wie beredt sie zum theil erzählen, sie gerne sie ausschmücken. Sie beschreiben sehr ausführlich die Beschaffenheit des Erdreichs, des Ackerbaues, der Gartengewächse und aller Früchte. Und doch bei den nächsten Veranlassungen, von den Lustgärten zu reden, schweigen sie entweder ganz, oder geben uns nur einige flüchtige Anzeigen, die nichts weniger, als den stolzen Begrif erregen, den man von den Wundern der chinesischen Gärten hat. Indessen ist es Chambers, Architect des Königs von England, dem man die verführerische Beschreibung der chinesischen Gärten und die algemeine Verbreitung ihres Ruhms verdankt. Dieser Mann, der Wissenschaft, Geschmack und Genie vereinigt, ragt unter allen Reisebeschreibern von China als der Lobredner der Gärten dieses Reichs hervor. Seine Beschreibung ist als die algemeine Quelle anzusehen, woraus alle übrige Schilderungen mit mehr oder weniger Abänderung und Zusätzen geschöpft sind. Die erste Nachricht gab der in seinem grössern Werke : Description of Chinese Buildings, etc. London. Fol. 1757 S. 14-19 zwar nur beiläufig, indem er sich vornehmlich mit den Gebäuden, Maschinen und Hausgeräthen der Chineser beschäftigt. Man lobte, man bewunderte den Geschmack der Gartenkunst, den Chambers den Chinesern beilegte ; man fing an, diesen Geschmack in England nachzuahmen. Ohne Zweifel war dieser Beifall den seine Beschreibung fand, eine Veranlassung mehr, dass er den ersten kurzen Entwurf in einer besondern Schrift : Dissertation on oriental Gardening. London 4. 1772 (deutsche Übersetzung. 8. Gotha 1775) weiter ausführte und darin Genie und Geschmack aufbot, um ein Gemälde zu liefern, das durch Schönheit und Mannigfaltigkeit nicht weniger, als durch Neuheit reitzte. Man ist sehr geneigt, einen Reisenden, der aus einem entfernten Welttheil komt, wohin ohnedies nur noch wenig Engländer gedrungen waren, erzählen zu hören ; man hört ihn desto aufmerksamer, je mehr er durch das Neue und Unerwartete sich der Bewunderung zu bemeistern weiss ; man hört ihn mit Zutrauen, wenn er als ein Mann von Verstand, und mit Vergnügen, wenn er als ein Mann von Geschmack erzählt. Chambers muste Eingang finden, wenn er gleich weniger die Wahrheit, als das Anziehende seiner Erzählung, auf seiner Seite hatte. Ich kan es mir vorstellen, wie ein Mann von weniger Talenten und Beobachtung, als Chambers, in einigen Gegenden von China verleitet werden kan, da Gärten zu sehen, wo keine sind. Nach dem Bericht des Comte sind einige fruchtbare Provinzen nicht allein mit vortreflichen Früchten, sondern auch mit anmuthigen Hügeln und Canälen erfült. Die Hügel sind in verschiedene Absätze und Stuffen vom Fusse bis zum Gipfel bearbeitet, aber blos in der Absicht, damit das Regenwasser sich überall vertheilen und das besäete Erdreich mit seinen Pflanzen nicht so leicht hinabreissen könne. Indessen gibt diese Gestalt, worin die Hügel gebildet werden, zuman wenn mehrere in einem Bezirk umherliegen, einen reizenden Anblick. Die Canäle, welche die Plänen durchschneiden, sind von einer ungemeinen Schönheit, sowohl des klaren und sanft dahin fliessenden Wassers, als auch der Einfassungen und Brücken wegen, womit sie bekleidet sind. Sie laufen gemeiniglich zwischen kleinen Erhöhungen auf beiden Seiten, die mit Steinen oder groben Marmorstücken eingefasst sind. Die über diese Canäle geführte Brücken, die zunächst zur Verbindung der Ländereigen dienen, sind von drei bis sieben Bögen, wovon der mittelste oder Hauptbogen gehr hoch ist, damit die Fahrzeuge darunter bequem hinwegfahren können. Die Gewölbe sind von grossen Stücken von Steinen erbauet, die Pfeiler aber so schmal, dass man in der Ferne glaubt, die Bögen schweben in der Luft. Man sieht solche Brücken von einer Strecke zur andern, und wenn, wie gewöhnlich, der Canal grade ist, so macht diese lange Reihe von Brücken eine Art von Allee, die ein prächtiges Ansehen hat. Der Hauptcanal der Provinz theilt sich zur Rechten und Linken in verschiedene kleiner, die sich wieder in eine Menge von Bächen zerschneiden, die an Städte und Dörfer hinlaufen, zuweilen Teiche und Seen bilden, wovon die angränzende Ländereien befruchtet werden. Dieses klare Wasser, hin und wieder in den Plänen vertheilt, mit Brücken verschönert, mit Fahrzeugen belegt, mit Dörfern untermischt, durch welche die Bäche bald hellschimmernd, bald dunkel beschattet ihren Lauf verfolgen, macht unstreitig eins der heitersten Gemälde von Landschaft. „Was würde noch werden, sagt Comte, wenn die Kunst, die oft in Frankreich die wildesten Gegenden durch die Pracht der Paläste, durch Gärten und Lusthayne verschönert, in diesen reichen Gefilden würksam würde, wo die Natur nichts gespart hat“ ? Eine solche Landschaft ist zwar kein Garten ; wie leicht kan sie aber nicht von einem Reisenden, der sich ganz den Entzückungen des Auges überlässt, dafür angenommen werden ? Indessen ist dis eben nicht der Fall, worin sich Chambers befindet. Er versichert, dass er sich bei den Chinesern genau nach den Grundsätzen erkundigt habe, denên sie bei der Anlage ihrer Gärten folgen. Wenn wir nicht glauben, dass er sich von falschen Nachrichten der Chineser hat blenden lassen, die so gern übertreiben, so gern alles, was ihre Nation betrift, vergrössern ; so lässt sich ein anderer Ausweg zur Erklärung dieser Sache entdecken. Chambers hatte in seinem Vaterlande bemerkt, dass man theils noch zu sehr der alten Manier anhing, theils bei den neuen Versuchen in Dürftigkeit an Erfindung und in manche Ausschweiffungen verfiel. Er sah es mit Verdruss, dass, da jede andere der schönen Künste so viele Lehrer hätte, die Gartenkunst allein verwaiset zurückbliebe, dass kein Mann für sie auffstand, der sie in ihre Rechte einsetzte. Er fand in seinem Verstand un in seiner Einbildungskraft Ideen, die er der Natur und Bestimmung der Gärten eigenthümlicher hielt, als die gewöhnlichen sind, denen man täglich folgte. Er glaubte, dass diese Ideen mehr Aufmerksamkeit erregen, mehr Aufnahme finden müsten, wenn sie einer entfernten Nation untergeschoben würden, die schon eine würkliche Anwendung davon gemacht hätte. Er hatte Klugheit genug, unter diese Ideen Zusätze zu mischen, die dem Nationalgeist der Chineser eigen sind. Kurz, er pflanzte brittische Ideen auf chinesischen Boden, um ihnen ein mehr auffallendes Ansehen zu geben und sie eindringender zu machen. Diese Vermuthung wird weniger gewagt scheinen, wenn man ausser allen dem, was oben von den Chinesern angeführt worden und woraus man keine vortheilhafte Begriffe von ihren Gärten zu ziehen veranlasst wird, noch die Beschreibung des Chambers selbst etwas näher betrachtet. Er fragt nicht, wo die herlichen Gärten, die er malt, liegen ; auch sagt er nicht, dass es Gärten des Kaisers oder dieser und jener Grossen sind. Er nennt sie ganz algemein chinesische Gärten, und scheint uns überreden zu wollen, dass es Gärten der Nation wären, Gärten, die eben so gewöhnlich in China angetroffen würden, als die Französischen in Europa. Demnächst gesteht er ausdrücklich, dass er weder mit der künstlichen, noch mit der simpeln Manier in der Gartenkunst zufrieden sei. Jene weiche zu ausschweiffend von der Natur ab, diese hingegen sei eine zu gewissenhafte Anhängerin derselben. Eine mit Urtheil unternommene Vereinigung beider Manieren würde eine dritte hervorbringen, die gewis vollkommener wäre, als diese beide. - Und diese Vereinigung hat er offenbar in der letzten ausführlichen Schrift von den chinesischen Gärten zur Absicht. Wenn jemand, sagt er ferner, kühn genug wäre, einen Versuch zu dieser Vereinigung zu machen, so würde er sich dem Tadel beider Partheien aussetzen, ohne eine oder die andere zu bessern, und sich dadurch selbst nachtheilig werden, ohns der Kunst einen Dienst zu leisten. Dem ohngeachtet aber könne es doch nicht undienlich seyn, das System eines fremden Volks bekannt zu machen. Er könne es mittheilen, ohne seine eigene Gefahr, und wie er hoffe, ohne sonst jemand zu beleidigen. – Diese Wendung des Chambers gibt seine Lage und Absicht nicht undeutlich zu erkennen. Ein grösserer Beweis ist die ganze Schrift selbst. Wenn man nicht annähme, dass Chambers seine Philosophie, seine Einsichten in die Künste und in das menschliche Herz, seine blühende Einbildungskraft und seinen feinen Geschmack den Chinesern geliehen hätte ; so würde man das, was er von ihren Gärten rühmt, mit so vielen zuverlässigen Nachrichten, die wir von diesem Reich und von dem Geist dieser Nation haben, unmöglich vereinigen können. Er ist freigebig mit Lobsprüchen, worauf sie auf keine Weise Anspruch machen dürfen. Wenn er gleich im Anfang sagt, dass ihre Gärtner nicht allein Botanisten, sondern auch Maler und Philosophen sind ; dass sie eine volkommene Kentnis des menschlichen Herzens und der Künste besitzen, durch welche die stärksten Empfindungen erregt werden können ; so ist dis eine so ungeheure Behauptung, als die nur gefunden werden kan. Auch wenn man hie und da die sinnreichsten Gemälde der Phantasie und die wunderbarsten Feenbezauberungen, die nicht von dem Würklichen abgezogen sind, auch wenn man verschiedene Widersprüche, da Verwirrungen der Einbildungskraft mit bedächtiger Wahl, mit richtigem Gefühl und seiner Beobachtung abwechseln, in der Beschreibung übersieht ; so gibt ihr ganzer Inhalt doch Beweis genug, dass Chambers, indem er die Grundsätze der chinesischen Gartenkunst zu erheben bemühet scheint, mehr bemühet ist, seine eigene vorzutragen. Wenn übrigens seiner Schrift die historische Wahrheit fehlt, so sol dadurch ihr Werth nicht herabgewürdigt werden. Sie bleibt immer als das Werk eines Mannes von viel Kentnis, Geschmack und Genie schätzbar und in einzelnen Stellen für die Gartenkunst wichtig ; immer eine angenehme Beschreibung eines nicht vorhandenen Gegenstandes, ein schönes Ideal, dem nichts weiter fehlt, als dass es vielleicht nie Würklichkeit haben wird. Es würde ein seltsames Misverständnis seny, wenn man glaubte, das Daseyn chinesischer Gärten überhaupt zweifelhaft machen wolte. In der That könte nichts seltsamer seyn. Meine Absicht ist blos, zu beweisen, dass China nicht solche Gärten hat, als Chambers beschreibt, als ein algemeines Vorurtheil rühmt, und eine getäuschte Nachahmungssucht nachzubilden versucht. So weit noch die Nachahmung gekommen ist, so weit ist sie auch mehr dem ideal eines Briten, als dem Muster eines Chinesers nachgegangen. Die Gärten in China können so wenig von dem Geist und dem Geschmack der Nation abweichend seyn, als irgend ein anderer Zweig der schönen Künste. Ausser dem, was einige andere Reisende bemerken, gibt Comte eine Nachricht von den chinesischen Gärten, die mitdem, was wir sonst von der Nation wissen, mehr übereinstimt und der Wahrheit näher zu treten scheint. Die Chineser, sagt er, sind noch nachlässiger in ihren Gärten, als in ihren Wohnungen ; sie haben in diesem Punkt Begriffe, die von den unsrigen sehr verschieden sind. Regelmässige Plätze anzulegen, Blumen zu pflanzen, Alleen und Hecken zu ziehen, würden sie für widersinnig halten. Das öfentliche Wohl erfordert, dass alles besäet sei, und ihr Privatinteresse, das mehr als die gemeine Wohlfahrt sie rührt, erlaubt ihnen nicht, das Angenehme dem Nützlichen vorzuziehen. Ihre Blumen ziehen sie so schlecht, dass man Mühe hat, sie wieder zu kennen. Man erblickt zwar in einigen Gegenden Bäume, die eine grosse Zierde in den Gärten geben würden ; allein sie verstehen nicht die Kunst, sie geschickt zu stellen. Anstatt der Früchte sind diese Bäume fast das ganze Jahr hindurch mit Blüten von lebhaftem Roth und Incarnat bedeckt ; pflanzte man davon Alleen, mit Pomeranzenbäumen untermischt, wie sehr leicht geschehen könte, so würde dies den schönsten Anblick von der Welt geben ; aber weil die Chineser nur selten spatzieren gehen, so sind Alleen nicht nach ihrem Geschmack. Ob sie gleich von der Anordnung und von der Kunst, wahre Verschönerungen anzubringen, nichts verstehen, so machen sie doch in ihren Gärten Aufwand. Sie bauen Grotten, sie führen kleine künstliche Hügel auf, sie bringen ganze Felsstücke dahin, die sie über einander aufhäufen, ohne eine andere Absicht, als blos die Natur nachzuahmen. Wenn sie demnächst so viel Wasser finden, als nöthig ist, um ihren Kohl und ihre übrigen Küchengewächse zu begiessen, so glauben sie, dass sie nichts mehr zu thun übrig haben. Der Kaiser hat Wasserkünste von der Erfindung der Europäer ; Privatpersonen aber begnügen sich mit ihren Teichen und Brunnen. – Die Pracht und der Aufwand, womit die Grossen umgeben sind, sobald sie öffentlich erscheinen, glänzt gar nicht auf ihr häusliches Leben und ihre Lustgärten zurück, worin nichts von den zauberischen Schönheiten, wovon man träumt, aber viel Dürftigkeit und geschmacklose Einfalt herscht, und die näher betrachtet weder etwas zu bewundern noch zu verwundern geben. Sekundärliteratur Susanne Müller-Wolff : William Chambers, der als entscheidender Wegbereiter des sentimentalen Landschaftsgartens gilt, blieb mit seiner Dissertation on Oriental gardening nicht ohne Einfluss auf Hirschfeld. Seine emphatisch vorgetragene Forderung an die Gartenkunst, nicht den Verstand, sondern umso intensiver das Gefühl anzusprechen, prägte die Sichtweise Hirschfelss. Dass Chambers zur Erreichung dieses Ziels den chinesischen Gartenstil favorisierte, behagte Hirschfeld weniger. Vor allem Gartenszenen von wildem und fürcherlichem Charakter, wie sie Chambers in seiner Schrift genüsslich ausmalt, stiessen bei Hirschfeld auf deutliche Ablehnung. Seine Schrift ist als Polemik gegen William Chambers aufzufassen : Die historische Herleitung der landschaftlichen Gartenkunst von den chinesischen Gärten wird darin ebenso in Frage gestellt wie die verbreitete Chinamode. Bei der Formulierung seiner Theorie konnte Hirschfeld an eine ästhetische Diskussion anknüpfen, die, angeregt durch die sensualistischen Einflüsse aus England und Frankreich, seit Anfang der 1770er Jahre auch in Deutschland das Naturschöne thematisierte und den sinnlichen Qualitäten der Natur einen eigenen Wirkungsraum zuwies. |
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| 3 | 1779 | Chaumier, C.J. Idée d'un jardin chinois à Fresne. (Paris : Georges-Louis Le Rouge, 1777). |
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| 4 | 1791 | Anderson, James. Correspondence for the introduction of Cochineal insects from America : the varnish and tallow trees from China, the discovery and culture of white lac ; the culture of red lac ; and also for the introduction of mulberry trees and silk worms, etc. (Madras : Joseph Martin, 1791). |
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| 5 | 1792-1801 | Jean-Didier Saint-Martin ist Apostolischer Vikar von Sichuan. |
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| 6 | 1793 |
Godwin, William. Of population [ID D17232]. Quellen : John Barrow David Hume Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste. Description géographique... de la Chine [ID D1819]. Staunton, George Leonard. An historical account of the embassy to the emperor of China [ID D1893]. Chap. VI. : Illustrations from the history of China. Nothing can be more ludicrous than that part of Mr. Malthus's book, in which, for 698 successive pages, he professes to treat of the checks by which population has actually been kept down to the level of the means of subsistence, whether in ancient or modern times. He acknowledges that in most countries population is at a stand. He takes little notice of the many instances, both in ancient and modern times, in which it has glaringly decreased. And he affirms, upon what evidence it is one of the special objects of this book to examine, that population, if unchecked, would go on, doubling itself every twenty-five years, or in a much shorter period, for ever. Now, if Mr. Malthus had intended a fair and full examination of this question, he should have set down, in the first place, in each country how many children, in the natural order of things, would be born, and then have proceeded, in the second place, to show how they were cut off. This would have been to have reasoned like a mathematician, like a genuine political economist, and like a philosopher. But the first of these points Mr. Malthus has uniformly omitted. He has therefore appeared to walk over the course at an easy pace, somewhat like Bobadil in the play, calling for 'twenty more, kill them too', simply by directing the keeper of the lists on no account to give entrance to a real combatant. Since the author of the Essay on Population has omitted this essential part of the consideration, I will endeavour to supply the defect. The fairest instance on many accounts to begin with, is that of China. In Mr. Malthus's book there is a chapter, entitled 'Of the Checks to Population in China and Japan' : and the author, having spent a number of smooth sentences on the subject, to amount of thirty-four pages, seems well satisfied that he has shewn that the actual state and history of China and Japan serve fully to confirm his opinion, that the population of the world would go on, unchecked, at the rate of doubling itself every twenty-five years or sooner. China is a country that is supposed to be more fully peopled than any other country in the world. According to Mr. Malthus the population of that empire has been wholly at a stand for the last hundred years : for he quotes Du Halde in the beginning of the last century, to confirm the enumeration of Sir George Staunton at the end of it, and concludes that these two authorities substantially agree with each other. Now China is a country of so uniform a tenour, its manners, its customs, its laws, its division of property, and its policy continuing substantially the same, that, if the population has been at a stand during the last century, there is every reason to suppose it has been at a stand, perhaps for ten centuries. Chine therefore is the most desirable instance that can be taken, of any old country, upon which to try the doctrine of the geometrical ratio. China has other advantages of no mean importance to the application of our argument. First, that in this empire 'extraordinary encouragements have always been given to marriage. Hume states, that every man in China is married before he is twenty, Mr. Barrow, a recent traveller, who accompanied Lord Macartney in his embassy in 1793, says, 'Public opinion considers celibacy as disgraceful, and a sort of infamy is attached to a man who continues unmarried beyond a certain time of life. As an encouragement to marriage, every male child may be provided for, and receive a stipend from the moment of his birth, by his name being enrolled on the military list. ' He adds, 'In China there are few of those manufacturing cities, which among us produce so great a waste of human life. No great capitals are here employed in any one branch of the arts. In general each labours for himself in his own profession. The still and inanimate kind of life which is led by the women, at the same time ; that it is supposed to render them more prolific, preserves them from accidents that might occasion untimely births'. So that here full scope is afforded to the principle of population. It is somewhat remarkable that in this country, where the principle of population might reasonably be expected to have been first understood, if not in the exact period of its duplication, at least in its tremendous tendency to excess, no remedies should ever have been thought of by the governors of the country. China is something like the republic of Venice, as it stood for a period of a thousand years, famous for the profoundness of its policy, and the rigidness of its regulations. The great length of time during which its political economy has remained unchanged, implies this. All human things are subject to decay. The law of mutability is so powerful within us, that scarcely any thing is of force enough to control it. But there is somewhat of so vivifying nature in the constitution of China, as to bid defiance to corruption. Mr. Malthus every where, up and down in the Essay on Population, preaches against the extensive use that we make of the institution of marriage, and seems to think that the great remedy we have for the miseries of mankind as arising from the principle of population, is to be found in discountenancing marriage among the poor. How shallow then are the politicians of this ancient empire, who have uniformly afforded the most 'extraordinary encouragements to marriage' ! Another circumstance is scarcely less miraculous. The exposing of children is a very common practice in China. So far, so good ; this is an obvious way of keeping down population ; though Mr. Malthus seems in some places to doubt its efficacy. But the shallow politicians of China again set themselves against this ; and edict after edict has been published to put an end to it. The statesman of China have confessedly had the knowledge and experience of several thousand years : but experience is thrown away upon some people. The government is celebrated for the paternal spirit displayed by the head of it towards his subjects : but some fathers, though with no want of love, become the authors of misery to their children by their injudicious conduct. I proceed however to supply that which, as before stated, Mr. Malthus has omitted, viz. an account how many children, upon the hypothesis of the Essay on Population, would be born, that we may afterwards proceed, with the more perfect preparation, to consider how they are cut off. Mr. Malthus takes the population of China at 333,000,000. For the sake of a more convenient and compendious arithmetic I will put it down at three hundred millions. Now the doctrine of the Essay on Population is, that 'population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty-five ears'. Therefore in China, after every proper deduction has been made for balancing the number of deaths by an adequate number of births, that so the population may not decrease, there must be an additional number of births, or a sort of superfetation, to the amount of three hundred millions every twenty-five years, to provide for the doubling required by the Essay of Population. In other countries, we will suppose, population is more or less kept down by the various discouragements to marriage held froth in those countries, and, according to Mr. Malthus, by the late period of life at which marriage frequently takes place. But in China extraordinary encouragements are given to marriage, and every man is married before he is twenty. We may be secure therefore that in that country the full number of children is born, whatever may become of them afterwards. Hereafter, perhaps before the close of the present century, we shall know something of the population of the United States of America. But, in the mean time, and while, in the sense of genuine statesmen and legislators, we know nothing, Mr. Malthus informs us, and lays it down as the corner-stone of his portentous and calamitous system, that 'the population there has been found to double itself, for above a century and a half successively, in less than twenty-five years', and that this 'has been repeatedly ascertained to be from procreation only'. How many children on an average to a marriage are produces in the United States ? No noe has pretended authentically to inform us. Are they more than in the old countries of Europe ? Probably not. What number of those that are born, die before ten or sixteen years of age ? Of all this we are ignorant. But whatever be the number of the children born in the United States of America, that die before they arrive at maturity, we know that in China three hundred millions of children more in proportion than in America, die every twenty-five years. This is as certain, as the doctrine of the Essay on Population is true. The human mind is but ill adapted to grapple with very high numbers ; and I am persuaded that important errors have been committed by theoretical writers in consequence of this infirmity. I will therefore endeavour to conform myself to the limited nature of human faculties, by reducing these numbers. It has already appeared, that three hundred millions of extra-infants must perish in China every twenty-five years, beyond the proportion of the number of infants that would perish in the United States. Now, if we divide this number by twenty-five, we shall find that twelve millions of extra-infants must perish annually in China, to support the doctrine of the Essay on Population. This surely is a portentous sort of proposition to be built upon a theory, without a single foundation in the records of the country to support it. Mr. Malthus indeed says, that the exposing of children is a very common practice in China, and that about two thousand are annually exposed in the city of Pekin. Alas, what is this to the twelve millions of extra-infants that it is absolutely necessary should perish annually in that country ? What a scene of devastation does Mr. Malthus's doctrine lead us to see in China ! They must lie on heaps, like what we read of human bodies in the plague of Marseilles. As fast as a certain number of these infants waste away in the streets, an equal number supplies their place, so that the scene of putrescence and the noisomeness of the stench are made perpetual. Does any traveller relate that, he was witnessed this ? – And all this time the legislators of the country know nothing of the matter, and go on from century to century, giving extraordinary encouragements to marriage, and prohibiting the exposing of children. But all this has no existence but in Mr. Malthus's book. It must be true, because in the United States 'the population has been found to double itself, for above a century and a half successively, in less than twenty-five years, and that from procreation only'. I shall hereafter proceed to consider the population of America. I have no doubt that one of these propositions is as true as the other. I am well aware that we know nothing of the population of China, and almost as little of the of the United States. I have therefore taken these statements almost entirely from M. Malthus himself. It is for him and his disciples to explain and to reconcile them. From all that has been said however it is perfectly clear, that the statesman and legislators of China, who have proceeded with a steady, and perhaps I may add an enlightened, attention to the subject for centuries, not only have no suspicion of the main principles taught in the Essay on Population, but are deeply impressed with the persuasion that, without encouragement and care to prevent it, the numbers of the human species have a perpetual tendency to decline. Upon the whole therefore it is as certain, as any thing can be, from the sewing of Mr. Malthus himself, that the empire of China has never been subject to the operation of the geometrical ratio. |
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| 7 | 1819-1854 |
Arthur Schopenhauer Quellen, Bücher aus seiner Bibliothek : Morrison, Robert. A dictionary of the Chinese language [ID D1934]. Pauthier, Jean- Pierre Guillaume. Les livres sacrés de l'Orient [ID D2040]. Pauthier, Jean-Pierre Guillaume. Mémoire sur l'origine et la propogation de la doctrine de tao, fondée par Lao-tseu [ID D6264]. Schulz, Christian. Aphorismen, oder Sentenzen des Konfuz [ID D17673]. Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Le livre des récompenses et des peines [ID D1937]. Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lao-tseu [ID D11899]. Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Foe koue ki ou relation des royaumes bouddhiques [ID D2020]. Lao-tseu. Tao-te-king. Trad. de Stanislas Julien [ID D2060]. Tchao-chi-kou-eul, ou l'Orphelin de la Chine. Transl. de Stanislas Julien [ID D2005]. Davis, John Francis. The Chinese : a general description of the empire of China and its habitants [ID D2017]. Gützlaff, Karl. Gützlaff's Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf den Frieden von Nankin [ID D832]. Neumann, Karl Friedrich. Natur- und Religionsphilosophie der Chinesen, nach dem Werke des chinesischen Weltweisen Tschuhi [Zhu Xi] [ID D1201]. Chinese theory of the creation. In : Asiatic journal ; vol. 127 (1826). Lettres édifiantes et curieuses [ID D1793]. Staunton, George Thomas. An inquiry into the proper mode of rendering the word 'God' [ID D17674]. Chinesische Schöpfungstheorie. In : Asiatic journal ; vol. 22 (1826). Régis, Jean-Baptiste. Y-king, antiquissimus Sinarum liber quem ex latina interpretatione [ID D2012]. Julien, Stanislas. Meng tseu vel Mencium inter Sinenses philosophos, ingenio, doctrina, nominisque claritate Confucio proximum [ID D1976]. Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Dsanglun oder, Weise und der Thor [ID D8069]. Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Forschungen im Gebiete der älteren religiösen, politischen und literärischen Sidlungsgeschichte der Völker Mittel-Asiens [ID D8070]. Ssanang Ssetsen, Chungtaidschi. Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen und ihres Fürstenhauses [ID D8066]. Deshauterayes, Michel-Ange André. Recherches sur la religion de Fo, professée par les bonzes Ho-chang de la Chine. In : Journal asiatique ; t. 7 (1825). Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über einige Grundlehren des Buddhismus. In : Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 1 (1832). Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über die tausend Buddhas einer Weltperiode der Einwohnung oder gleichmässigen Dauer. In : Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 2 (1834). Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über die sogenannte dritte Welt der Buddhaisten. In : Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 2 (1834). Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über Lamaismus und die Bedeutungslosigkeit dieses Namens. In : Bulletin scientifique / Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 1 (1837). Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über das Mahâyâna und Pradschnâ-pâramitâ der Bauddhen. In : Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 4 (1837). Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über die Verwandtschaft der gnostisch-theosophischen Lehren mit den Religionssystemen des Orients, vorzüglich dem Buddhaismus [ID D1871]. Schiefner, Franz Anton von. Über die Verschlechterungsperioden der Menschheit nach buddhistischer Anschaungsweise. In : Mélanges asiatiques tirés du Bulletin historico philologico de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg ; t. 1 (1851). Schiefner, Franz Anton von. Das buddhistische Sutra der zwei und vierzig Sätze. Aus dem Tibetischen übers. In : Mélanges asiatiques tirés du Bulletin historico philologico de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg ; t. 1 (1851). Turner, Samuel. Samuel Turner’s Gesandtschaftsreise an den Hof des Teshoo Lama [ID D1898]. Bochinger, Johann Jakob. La vie contemplative, ascétique et monastique chez les indous et chez les peuples bouddhistes. [ID D17696]. Burnouf, Eugène (1801-1852). Introduction à l’histoire du buddhisme indien. T. 1. (Paris : Imprimerie royale, 1844). Foucaux, Ph.Ed. (1847-1848). Rgy tch’er rol pa ; ou Développement des jeux, contenant l’histoire du Bouddha Cakya-Mouni. Trad. Sur la version tibétaine du Bkah hgyour, et revu sur l’original sanscrit (Lalitavistara). Vol. 1-2. (Paris : L’imprimerie royale, 1847-1848). Ma, Shaoyun ; Sheng, Shengzu. Wei Zang tu shi : Description du Tibet. Trad. du chinois en Russe par Bitchourin. [Übers. von Klaproth] [ID D11524]. Klaproth, Julius von. Fragmens bouddhiques [ID D7510]. Spiegel, Fr[iedrich] (1820-1905). Liber de officiis sacerdotum buddhicorum. (Bonnae ad Rhenum : Impensis H.B. Koenig, 1841). Spiegel, Fr[iedrich]. Anecdota pâlica ; nach den Handschriften der Königl. Bibliothek in Copenhagen. (Leipzig : W. Engelmann, 1845). Buchanan-Hamilton, Francis. On the religion and literature of the Burman. I : Asiatic researches ; 6 (1799). Csoma de Körös, Alexandre. Analysis of the Kanjur and an abstract of the contents of the Tanjur. In : Asiatic researches ; 20 (1836-39). Sangermano, Vicentius (1758-1819). A description of the Burmese empire. comp. chiefly from native documents by Father Sangermano and tr. from his MS. by William Tandy. (Rome : Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1833). Turnour, George (1799-1843). The first twenty chapters of the Mahawanso : and a prefatory essay on Pali buddhistical literature ; originally pub. As an introduction to the above mentioned portion of the Mahawanso and to the epitome of the history of Ceylon, and the historical inscriptions, printed in the Ceylon almanacs of 1833 and 1834. (Ceyon : Cotta Church Mission Press, 1836). Upham, Edward (1776-1834) [et al.]. The Mahávansi, the Rájá-ratnácari, and the Rájã-vali : forming the sacred and historical books of Ceylon ; also, a collection of tracts illustrative of the doctrines and literature of buddhism. (London : Parbury, Allen and Co., 1833). Upham, Edward. The history and doctrine of buddhism ; popularly illustrated. With notices of the Kappooism, or demon worship, and of the Bali, or planetary incantations, of Ceylon. With forty-three lithographic prints from original Singhalese designs. (London : R. Ackermann, 1829). Hardy, R[obert] Spence (1803-1868). Eastern monachism : an account of the origin, laws, discipline, sacred writings, mysterious rites, religious ceremonies, and present circumstances. (London : Partridge and Oakey, 1850). Hardy, R[obert] Spence. A manual of budhism [sic], in its modern development. (London : Partridge and Oakey, 1853). Koeppen, Carl Friedrich. Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung [ID D12250]. Sekundärliteratur Adrian Hsia : Schopenhauer is the first European thinker who went beyond the borders of the Holy Bible and integrated Indian culture into his philosophical system, thereby also touching cultural China. He freely professed his indebtedness to ‘divine’ Plato, 'incredible' Kant, and the 'holy' Upanishads for the formation of his own philosophy. Each one of us is the product of a certain culture, we even speak its language. However, we can expand out cultural self to include other elements. Schopenhauer did this, and this act does not make him less European or German. However, it does make him less fundamentalistic, because his Eurocentrism includes old Indian wisdom. Consequently, China is automatically placed closer to the centre, particularly because Buddhism, which originated in India, is also recognized as one of the three Chinese religions. Even without taking the books on Buddhism into consideration, Schopenhauer had read a respectable number of books on Chinese culture. In his library, he even had the first Chinese dictionary in English (Morrison, Robert. A dictionary of the Chinese language [ID D1934]). He wrote notes in it. For example, after checking the dates of Buddha and Confucius, he notes that the latter is older that the 'Fo-Lehre' (Buddhist teaching). He was also interested in Morrison’s statement that by examining the meaning of 'Motion and Rest' he came to the conclusion that the Chinese did not have the notion of ‘deity’. Schopenhauer also possessed Confucian canons in several translated languages: the four books of Confucianism (Pauthier, Jean-Pierre Guillaume. Les livres sacrés de l'Orient [ID D2040]) ; a separate collection of his sayings (Schulz, Christian. Aphorismen, oder Sentenzen des Konfuz [ID D17673]) ; a 'Chi-king' (Shi jing) and a 'Y-King' (Yi jing) in Latin, an interpretation of the same Y-King (Yi jing) and the Latin translation of Mengzi. He also read at least four books in French on and about Taoism, two translations by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat (Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Le livre des récompenses et des peines [ID D1937] and Stanislas Julien (Lao-tseu. Tao-te-king : le livre de la voie et de la vertu [ID D2060]) respectively, and two 'mémoires' on Laozi and Tao, one by Abel-Rémusat (Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lao-tseu [ID D11899]) and the other translated by Jean-Pierre-Guillaume Pauthier (Mémoire sur l'origine et la propagation de la doctrine de tao, fondée par Lao-tseu [ID D6264]. Thus Schopenhauer was quite well equipped to speak of the principles of Confucianism and Laozis Dao de jing. He also read the two Chinese literary works in translation, namely Tchao-chi-kou-eul, ou l'Orphelin de la Chine. Transl. by Stanislas Julien [ID D2005], a French and a German translation of Hao jiu zhuan. Last, but not least, Schopenhauer also read a general description of China (Davis, John Francis. The Chinese : a general description of the empire of China and its inhabitants [ID D2017]). In addition to the above books, we must also add Karl Friedrich August Gützlaff's History of the Chinese empire in German (Gützlaff, Karl. Gützlaff's Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf den Frieden von Nankin [ID D832]), from which Schopenhauer quoted in his short essay titled 'Sinologie'. The essay is a curious piece of work. We shall analyse it under three aspects. In the same manner as Schopenhauer was critical of the vanity of the Anglican missionaries to convert the Hindus, who, in his opinion, were more knowledgeable than any other people in ontological matters, he criticised the Catholic Church, including the much praised Jesuits, of trying to converting an ancient culture to a relatively new religion. In their fervour, they only thought of finding traces of their religion in the ancient culture of China, thereby ignoring completely the difference between the Chinese and Christian civilisation. The European culture, being derived from Judaism, is theistic, while the three Chinese religions (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism), are neither monotheistic nor polytheistic. In this connection, we know that Schopenhauer did not think the terms ‘atheism’ and ‘pantheism’ are logical and admissible, because both terms presupposes the existence of God. We know that Schopenhauer began his reading on Indian philosophy, through the influence of Friedrich Majer, in 1813/14, and quite a respectable number of books on Brahmanism and Buddhism can be found in his personal library. Last, not least, his essay has a long footnote providing the most important publications on Buddhism of his time. However, the fact that he thought, like the earlier German philosophers such as Hegel, Herder, and Kant, that Tibet was the capital of the 'Buddhaistischen Kirche' indicates the incompleteness of the knowledge at that time. On Taoism, there was even scantier information. Even though Schopenhauer had two books on Laozi by Abel-Rémusat, it is not established when he had read them. It has been established that he had read Stanislas Julien’s superior translation immediately after its publication in 1842. He even used a sentence from the book to serve as motto to the 'Supplements to the Fourth Book' of his Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. The motto, which was taken from Julien's comments, reads : "Tout les hommes désirent uniquement de se délivrer de la mort : ils ne savent pas se délivrer de la vie". Schopenhauer also possessed the book by Jean-Pierre-Guillaume Panthier, comparing Laozi's teaching with Upanishads and concluding that they are compatible. Because Schopenhauer's approach to Asia began with Hinduism and Buddhism, we can assume that he found his way to Taoism via the Indian philosophy. Nevertheless, Schopenhauer was European, it would be more natural for him to view the world from the Christian perspective. However, because of his perception of the historical world as a place of suffering of such an intense kind which made the invention of hell superfluous, he had a natural inclination towards India's philosophy of suffering. With such a non-European connection, his perspective became less Europe-centred. Already in the first part of his major work, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, he mentioned the Chinese philosophy of Y-King [Yi jing] and its accompanying antipodes Yin and Yang with Pythagorian theory in one breath. It constitutes the third of the four objective systems. He also compared the same antipodes with the natural philosophy of Schelling and his school who pointed out the polarity was a fundamental law of 'fast aller Erscheinungung der Natur'. Schelling was, of course, only 13 years older than Schopenhauer, while Yi jing is ancient. The highest praise was reserved for the Vedas as the fruit of the highest wisdom which is crystalized in the maxim: 'tat twam asi'. The essence of this formula Schopenhauer equates with Immanuel Kant’s postulate of practical reason. The truth has, of course, to be disguised as myth, in this case the transmigration with the teaching of nirvana in which there are no 'Geburt, Alter, Krankheit und Tod'. This myth of nirvana came to Greece from India or Egypt and were received with great admiration by Pythagoras and Plato. This does not contradict his other conviction, that Buddhism has the highest 'Gehalt an Wahrheit' under the 'Schleier der Allegorie'. It was not without satisfaction that he concluded that his teaching coincides with that of Buddhism without being influenced by it. Because when the first volume of his Welt als Wille und Vorstellung was published in 1818, there were hardly any publication on Buddhism except a few articles in the Asiatic Researches on the Burmese branch of Buddhism. Buddhism was, according to Schopenhauer, the oldest, largest, and truest religion because it teaches that the existence of the world is a result of our sins. Schopenhauer had moved his centre to India, it could be called an Indian-centred Eurocentrism, if such a construct is possible at all. From his centre, he built bridges both to Christianity and to China. However, he was aware that the Indology was still at its beginning, and he compared the Sanscrit scholars in Europe to high school students learning Greek. The knowledge of Chinese among the scholars was ever more inadequate, and he was particularly unhappy with Abel-Rémusat's work. Using the works he considered more reliable, some of which we have seen above, he gives us a concise picture of China as he understood it. The original cult of the Chinese, according to Schopenhauer, was devoted to the blue sky in winter and the earth in summer, besides a number of possible natural phenomena of which each is controlled by a genius. However, he correctly noticed that benefactors to the Chinese people could be deified. Then there was also the private cult of one's own ancestors. There are also three public religions. The first he identified as 'Taossee', i.e. religious Taoism, founded by Laozi, which he characterized as the 'Lehre von der Vernunft', the inner world order or innate principle of all things. Schopenhauer's source was Stanilas Julien's translation of Dao de jing. With Julien, he opined that the teaching of Tao, which is given as the way to salvation, to redemption of the world and its miseries, agrees with that of Buddhism. Schopenhauer correctly notes that the priests and the religion of Taoism were not popular and respected. What he did not know was that there was a philosophical school of Taoism as well which, lacking all religious aspects, constitutes the metaphysical structure of the Chinese culture. As a matter of fact, this Chinese metaphysics can be used as a bridge to approach his own philosophy of 'Vorstellung' and 'Wille' which we shall attempt to demonstrate later on. The second Chinese teaching is, of course, Confucianism, which he characterized as a political moral philosophy without any metaphysics. He found this quite boring. Finally, there was Buddhism, Schopenhauer’s favourite. Here he became eloquent and gave all kind of information. He was full of praise and he was especially impressed by the fact that Buddhism prospered without support from the state. He also appreciated the peaceful co-existence of all three teachings, influencing and permeating each other. This characteristic is evident in the saying that the three teachings are really one. These three religions were neither monotheistic, nor polytheistic. At least, Schopenhauer opined, Buddhism was also not pantheistic. Incidentally, neither was Confucianism or Taoism. The above was all Schopenhauer said about the Chinese culture. He was apparently only interested in its religious part. His knowledge of religious Taoism was minimal, he was not interested in the teaching of the Confucian school, although unknowingly, he shared one of its principles, namely, 'zhen ming', i. e. to call a theory by nothing but its proper designation. Schopenhauer demand of 'zhen ming' was a outburst against those contemporary philosophers whom he identified as philosophical jokers who discussed atheism, pantheism, and cosmology in reference to Spinoza. The enthusiasm of Schopenhauer for 'Tchu-Fu-Tse' knew no bounds, he thought the Chinese philosopher expressed exactly the ideas which he himself presented in Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Immediately he began to profess his innocence that he did not and could not have plagiarised from 'Tchu-Fu-Tse' because the article he quoted was published eight years after his Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. He used a German article on the same Chinese philosopher to check the correctness of the English one and came to the conclusion that one confirmed the accuracy of the other, even though he thought the German Sinologist did not understand the Chinese text too well. Thus his essay on Sinology ends with a dissatisfactory note and the hope that some Englishmen would publish more of the above. Even though Schopenhauer never took up the subject again, we will attempt to interpret his Welt als Wille und Vorstellung from a Chinese perspective, but not using 'Tchu-Fu-Tse', but Taoist metaphysics which was also, at least partially, the source of the former. |
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| 8 | 1823-1907 |
Great Britain. House of Commons. Return to an address / Return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons. (London : House of Commons, 1823-1907). 1823 East and West India trade. Return to an order of the Honourable House of Commons dated the 10th of February 1823 ; for an account of the tonnage entered outwards for the East Indies and China, in each year from 1793 to 1822, inclusive ; also a similar account of the tonnage entered inwards from the East Indies and China, during the same period. 1831 Return to an order of the Honourable House of Commons, dated 3 February 1831 : for, a continuation (to the latest period to which they can be made up) of all accounts relating to the trade of India and China, and to the finances of India, which were presented to The House by His Majesty's command, in the years 1829 and 1830 ; and also, of all such further accounts relating to the same matters, which have been ordered by the House during the last year. 1833 Ship Amherst. Return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 June 1833 ; requiring, a copy or extract of any despatch which may have been addressed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company to the supracargoes at Canton, in reference to the voyage recently undertaken by the Ship Amherst to the north-east coast of China ; together with a copy of any reports or journals of the said voyage. 1833 Gold and silver. (India and China trade.) Return to an order of the Honourable House of Commons, dated 28 March 1833 ; --for, an account of the gold and silver coin and bullion imported into and exported from India and China, to or from Europe or America respectively, distinguishing gold from silver, in each year, from the earliest period from which such account can be furnished:--so far as relates to the trade of India. 1833 East India Company. (India and China trade.) Return to an order of the Honourable House of Commons, dated 3 April 1833 ; --for, continuation to the latest period to which they can be made up, of all accounts relating to the trade of India and China, and to the finances of India, which were presented to this House, by His Majesty's command, in the years 1829 and 1830 ; and also, of all such other accounts relating to the same matters as have been ordered by this House during the last two years. 1833 East India Company (India and China trade) : return to an order of the honourable House of Commons, dated 3 April 1833 ; -for, continuation to the latest period to which they can be made up, of all accounts relating to the trade of India and China, and to the finances of India. 1833 Further returns to an order of the Honourable House of Commons, dated 3 April 1833 ; --for, a continuation to the latest period to which they can be made up, of all accounts relating to the trade of India and China, and to the finances of India, which were presented to This House, by His Majesty's command, in the years 1829 and 1830 ; and also, of all such other accounts relating to the same matters as have been ordered by This House during the last two years : ordered, by The House of Commons, to be printed, 25 June 1833. 1839 Melvill, James C. East India Company : return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 24 June 1839;--for, accounts of all monies supplied from the revenues of India since the return made to the order of The House of the 12th day of December 1837, towards the payments of expenses in England, chargeable on those revenues, particularizing, as before, monthly and annually: 1.--The amount of bills drawn by the Court of Directors on the several governments of India, in separate accounts of each Presidency, for monies paid into the London treasury of the East India Company, with the rates of exchange at which such bills were issued. 2.--The amount of remittances, in separate accounts, made by the several governments of India, and by the East India Company's agents in China, to the Court of Directors; specifying the dates of remittances as advised in the registers received from India, and the dates when the same were received into the London treasury; whether the due payment of those remittances were protected by the hypothecation of goods, or by any other security, with the rates of exchange at which such remittances were made. 3.--Amount of bills drawn by the East India Company's agents in China on the several governments of India, with the rates of exchange at which such bills were issued at Canton;--also, an account of remittances received from India or China, since the last return, in silk, or any other description of goods; specifying the invoice cost in Indian currency and in British sterling money; with a statement, if sold, of the net proceeds realized in London:--also, an account of any remittances received into the London treasury of the East India Company, in repayment of advances made in India on account of Her Majesty's government, and also made applicable towards the payment of expenses in England chargeable on the revenues of India 1840 China : further return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1840 : for, copies of all communications between the Board of Treasury, or the India Board, or any other public department, and the parties or their agents who are holders of certificates or bills granted by the Chief Superintendent at Canton for opium surrendered to the Chinese authorities. 1840 China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1840 : --for, copies of all communications between the Board of Treasury, or the India Board, or any other public department, and the parties or their agents who are holders of certificates or bills granted by the chief superintendent at Canton for opium surrendered to the Chinese authorities : together with an account of the number of such bills or certificates, and of the amount in sterling value which they represent. 1840 China : further return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1840 : --for, copies of all communications between the Board of Treasury, or the India Board, or any other public department, and the parties or their agents who are holders of certificates or bills granted by the Chief Superintendent at Canton for opium surrendered to the Chinese authorities. 1840 Melvill, J.C. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 9 April 1840, for, copies of any correspondence between Her Majesty's Government and the East India Company, showing the arrangement entered into with the East India Company for paying the expense of the armament now preparing in India for service in China 1841 China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 30 May 1853, for, return of property captured or detained by the combined forces in China, from the 25th day of August 1841, showing the actual amount of money in British sterling received, and in what manner disposed of, with the amount paid as batta, or on any other account, to the naval and military forces employed during the service. 1842 Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 6 June 1842 ; -- for, return of all monies repaid by Her Majesty's Government to the East India Company, on account of the war in China, since the commencement of the war until the present time. 1843 Sycee silver : return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 3 February 1843 ; -- for, returns of the quantity of sycee silver and other silver imported from China in Her Majesty's Ship Conway ; ... also, account of the loss or gain to the state by sending the silver to the mint instead of selling it in the market as it arrived. 1846 Parker, John. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 18 June 1846, for an account of sums received from the Chinese Government, under the Treaty of Nankin, for the payment of debts due by Chinese merchants to British subjects : of the debts paid therefrom to British subjects, and of the balance still remaining in the hands of the Government : also, of debts claimed by British subjects and not paid, with the reasons for their being disallowed, and whether these reasons were suggested by the British or by the Chinese authorities. 1846 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 29 January 1846 ; -- for a "return of the annual receipt and expenditure of the Colony of Hong Kong, made up to the latest period for which accounts have been received, showing the gross receipts from the various branches of revenue, under their different heads ; distinguishing the amounts levied in the Colony from Parliamentary Grants, and stating the expenditure under its various branches." 1847 Martin, Robert Montgomyer. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 2 July 1847 ; for, copy of correspondence of Mr. Montgomery Martin with the Secretary of State for the colonies, relating to this resignation of the Office of Treasurer of Hong Kong. 1847 Martin, Robert Montgomery. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 11 May 1847 ; -- for, copy of a memorandum by Robert Montgomery Martin, member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, on the records of the Council, referring to the mistake in date of dissent on opium, of the 26th day of November 1844 ; and of the observations of Governor Davis thereon, dated the 12th day of February 1845."-- (in continuation of paper ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 4 May 1847, no. 347.). 1853 Melvill, James Cosmo. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 30 May 1853 ; -- for, return "of property captured or detained by the combined forces in China, from the 25th day of August 1841, showing the actual amount of money in British sterling received, and in what manner disposed of ; with the amount paid as batta, or on any other account, to the naval and military forces employed during the service." 1854 Hogg, James Weir. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 5 May 1854 ; for, "Copies of the correspondence between Her Majesty's Government, or any department of it, or the Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India, and the Court of Directors of the East India Company, regarding the settlement of the balance of expenditure by the Government of India, on account of the expedition to China." 1857 Cheong, Alum. Hong Kong : return to an address of the Honourable the House of commons, dated 1 July 1857 : for "Copies of, or extracts from, any papers connected with the confinement of Chinese prisoners at Hong Kong, and with the trial of a baker and others on the charge of poisoning". 1857 Martin, Robert Montgomery. Hong Kong : return of two addresses of the honourable the House of Commons dated respectively 13 and 27 February 1857 ; --for, (address, 13 February 1857) "copies of 'report on Hong Kong ; ' 'Report on Chusan ; ' and 'Minute on the British position and prospects in China' by Mr. R. Montgomery Martin, when treasurer to the Queen at Hong Kong, and a memebr of her majesty's legislative council in China. 1857 Bowring, John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 14 May 1857 ; for, "Copies or extracts of correspondence between Governor Sir John Bowring and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, relative to the re-construction of the Legislative Council of the Colony of Hong Kong, in the years 1855 and 1856." 1857 Taunton, Henry Labouchere. Chinese emigrants : return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 23 February 1857 ; for "Copies of any recent communications to or from the Foreign Office, Colonial Office, Board of Trade, and any other Department of Her Majesty's Government, on the subject of mortality on board the "Duke of Portland" or any other British ships carrying emigrants from China." 1857 Hong Kong : return to two addresses of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated respectively 13 and 27 February 1857--for (Address, 13 February 1857), "Copies of 'Report on Hong Kong: 'Report on Chusan' ; and 'Minute on the British position and prospects in China'. 1857 Cheong, Alum. Hong Kong : return to and address of the Honourable the House of commons, dated 1 July 1857 : for "Copies of, or extracts from, any papers connected with the confinement of Chinese prisoners at Hong Kong, and with the trial of a baker and others on the charge of poisoning". 1857 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 6 March 1857 ; -- for "Copies of any memorials received by Viscount Palmerston, in 1847 and 1848, from the East India and China Association of Liverpool, together with the answers returned thereto." 1857 Bowring, John. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 15 June 1857 ; -- for, "Copies, or extracts of any correspondence with Sir John Bowring on the subject of his application for a vote from Parliament to defray the expense of measures of precaution and defence at Hong Kong, required by the state of affairs in China." 1857 China surveys : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 11 June 1857, for, a return of the respective dates of transmission to the Admiralty of any official surveys that may have been made in the Chinese waters, between Macao and Hong Kong, since the cession of that island to Her Majesty, and, similar return as to official surveys of all other portions of the Chinese coast. 1859 India and China (exports and imports) : return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 March 1859. 1859 Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 March 1859 ; -for, 'each year since 1813, of the value, computed or declared, of the manufactures and produce, -1. exported from the United Kingdom to India and to China and Hong Kong. 2. imported into the United Kingdom from India and from China and Hong Kong, specifying the quantities of cotton from India, and tea and silk. 3. exported from India to China and Hong Kong. 4. inported into India from China and Hong Kong." 1860 Pennell, C.H. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 14 February 1860, for, copies of letter from the Secretary to the Admiralty, no. 336, dated the 9th day of August 1858, respecting the affairs in China, enclosing letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine to the Earl of Clarendon, no. 91, dated Her Majesty's Ships Furious, Gulf of Pechele, the 23d day of April 1858 : of letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, no. 101, dated Her Majesty's Ship Furious, Gulf of Pechele, the 29th day of April 1858, to the Earl of Clarendon : of letter from Sir Michael Seymour, acknowledging receipt of same, no. 326, dated Her Majesty's Ship Calcutta, Hong Kong, the 27th day of September 1858, with its enclosures, viz., letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine to Sir Michael Seymour, dated Her Majesty's Ship Furious, the 21st day of May 1858, and letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, dated Tiensin, the 6th day of July 1858 : and, of letters from the Secretary to the Admiralty to Sir Michael Seymour, no. 542, dated the 23d day of November 1858, from the Secretary to the Admiralty, to E. Hammond, Esq., dated Admiralty, the 23d day of November. 1860 James, Edwin John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 6 March 1860 ; -- for, copies of all correspondence, or other papers, on the following subjects, or any of them:-- the resignation of the justiceship of the peace for Hong Kong by Mr. Thomas Chisholm Anstey, sent in to the local government on the 13th day of May 1858 ; his suspension, on the 7th day of August 1858, from the attorney generalship of the Colony of Hong Kong, and from the Office of Counsel to the Superintendency of Trade in China ; the case of The Queen v. Tarrant for libel, tried at the November sessions (1858) of the Hong Kong Supreme Court (Criminal Side) ; the charge of alleged complicity of Mr. Caldwell, J.P. and Protector of Chinese at Hong Kong, with Hong Kong pirates ; the charges made against the Acting Colonial Secretary (Dr. Bridges) with reference to the foregoing subjects, and also the opium farm monopoly ; the proceedings against Mr. May, Superintendent of Police at Hong Kong, Mr. Tarrant, Registrar of Deeds there, and the police court interpreter Tong Akou, and the dismissal of the police court interpreter Assam, for having severally given evidence against the said parties, or any of them ; and, the imperial regulations (if any) by which, the several suspensions or removals before mentioned were authorised. 1860 Kinnaird, Arthur. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 8 August 1859 ; -- for, "copies of the ordinance (no. 2, of 1858) passed by the Hong Kong Legislative Council, 'for licensing and regulating the sale of prepared opium, ' specifying the date of its confirmation by Her Majesty's Government:" "of the grants thereunder made of the sole privilege of preparing opium and selling the same within Hong Kong:" "of the report and minutes of a committee of the said Council upon certain circumstances connected with the first grant of such privilege, and the minute of council adopting such report:" "and, of all correspondence relating to the matters aforesaid." 1862 Lewis, George Cornewall. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 11 March 1862 ; -- for, "returns of the number and descriptions of troops of all arms at the different stations in China, on hte 1st day of March, annually, for the last five years, and on the date of the last despatches from China:" "and of the approximate annual cost of the troops remaining in China at the date of the last despatches." 1862 Lewis, Cornewall George. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 16 May 1862 ; -- for, "Returns of the numbers of troops of Her Majesty's service now stationed in China, giving in detail the numbers of officers and men of each rank and service, or civilians connected with such service, receiveing British or colonial pay:" "stating whether they receive Indian or other allowances, and from what fund they are paid:" "Similar return for Her Majesty's Indian service:" "and, similar return for any irregular or local corps that may be paid by Great Britain." 1862 Peel, Fredrick. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 27 March 1862 ; -- for, an account "showing the several votes of credit in the years 1859-60, 1860-1, and 1861-2, on account of the China war:" "Also, an account of the services to which the said votes of credit have been applied ; the amount applied in each year to each service ; the total amount applied to each service to 31 March 1862 ; and the balance then remaining outstanding:" "And, a statement of the amount of all claims, so far as is known, that have been made on the government by or on the part of the Indian Government or others, on account of services during the China war ; showing, also, the amount paid or admitted, and the amount still unsettled." 1862 Rosmead, Hercules Robinson. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 16 June 1862 ; -- for, "copies of a despatch from the Governor of Hong Kong, dated the 16th day of December 1861, transmitting copy of the minutes of inquiry into civil service abuses before the Executive Council of that colony, and of the answer returned to that despatch:" "and, of correspondence with Mr. Chisholm Anstey on the subject." 1863 China : return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 4 June 1863. Verlag: [London] : House of Commons, 1863 : for, copy of the Order in Council authorising the enlistment of officers and men, and the equipment and fitting-out of vessels of war for the service of the Emperor of China. (London : House of Commons., 1863). 1863 Peel, Frederick. China indemnity : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 27 July 1863., for, a statement of the sums received on account of the China indemnity, under the Treaty of Pekin, of the 24th day of October 1860, made up to the latest date of which accounts have been received from China, and of the balance which then remained unpaid. 1863 Romilly, Edward ; Arbuthnot, Henry. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 2 July 1863, for, a return in detail, of the appropriation of the sum of dollars 456,774.39 balance remaining in the Treasury from the sum of 3,000,000 of dollars received from the Chinese Government under the Treaty of Nankin, in payment of the debts due by Chinese merchants to British subjects. 1863 Peel, Fredrick. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 3 March 1863 ; -- for, an "account showing the several votes of credit in the years 1859-60, 1860-1, and 1861-2, on account of the last China war, and the application thereof, to the latest date to which the same can be prepared:" "and, statement of the amount of all claims made by the Indian Department for expenses on account of the last China war, the amount thereof repaid out of the vote of credit, and the balance remaining unsettled at the same date." 1865 Prideaux, Fras W. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 25 July 1864;-for, 'return of opium exported to China from Central India via Bombay since the year 1830. 1865 Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 21 February 1865, for : copy of correspondence and papers relating to the establishment of telegraphic communication between India, Singapore, China and Australia, since the 5th day of April 1864 (in continuation of Papers communicated last session). 1866 Briggs, John Henry. Chinese pirates : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 April 1866, for, return of the number of Chinese pirate vessels captured, or burnt, or otherwise destroyed by Her Majesty's vessels of war in the China Seas during the command of Admiral King : and, copy of report as to how the captured vessels and property were disposed of, and what amount of prize money was shared by the respective captors, stating the number of pirates given up to the British authorities at Hong Kong, and to the Chinese authorities. 1866 Mortality in troops (China and Japan) : return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 8 February 1866 : for, copy of all correspondence which has taken taken [sic] place relative to the sickness and mortality in the 2d Battalion of the 9th Regiment and 2d Battalion of the 11th Regiment in China and Japan. 1866 Sykes, Colonel ; Forster, W.E. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 8 February 1866 ; -- for, "copy or extracts of all correspondence in the Colonial Office respecting the rendition by the Acting Governor of Hong Kong, Mr. Mercer, to the Chinese authorities at Canton, of a person described in the public journals as the Mo-Wong, and his execution." 1866 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 22 March 1866 ; -- for, a "detailed statement of all monies expended upon fortifications, military storehouses and buildings, and upon barracks, at Hong Kong and Kowloon, and of monies paid for hire of godowns or other temporary buildings up to the 31st day of December 1865 (in continuation of report, no. 93)." 1866 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 13 February 1866 ; -- for, return showing the accommodation for the troops of all arms at Hong Kong and Kowloon, at the time of the arrival of the 2d Battalion, 9th Regiment, and 2d Battalion, 11th Regiment ; specifying the nature of the accommodation and number of cubic feet allowed per man. 1866 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 13 February 1866 ; -- for, "return of the mean annual strength, total annual sickness, mortality, and invaliding of the troops of each arm, officers and men, at Hong Kong, from the year 1850 to 1865, both inclusive:" "and, of the number of deaths annually on the voyage to England of the troops invalided," 1866 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 21 February 1866 ; -- for, a "detailed statement of all monies expended upon fortifications, military storehouses and buildings, and upon barracks, at Hong Kong and Kowloon, and of monies paid for hire of godowns or other temporary buildings from 1861 to 1865, both years inclusive." 1866 Peel, Frederick ; Lugard, Edward. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 10 April 1866 ; -- for, "copy of letter, dated Treasury Chambers, 17 September 1862, signed by Mr. Peel, and addressed to Sir Edward Lugard, K.C.B., War Office, relative to the garrison of Hong Kong." 1867 Mail services (India and China). Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 19 November 1867 ; --for, copy "of further correspondence relating to the conveyance of mails to India and China (in continuation of parliamentary paper, no. 405, of session 1867)." 1868 Sclater-Booth, G. ; Crossman, W. China and Japan : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 4 June 1868, for, copy of reports from Major Crossman and correspondence respecting the legation and consular buildings in China and Japan. Verlag: [London] : House of Commons, 1868. 1868 Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 5 May 1868, for : copy of correspondence and papers relating to the establishment of telegraphic communication between India, Singapore, China and Australia, since the 21st day of February 1865 (in continuation of Papers communicated the Session of 1865). 1868 Macdonnell, Richard Graves. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 19 May 1868 ; for, "copies of memorial to the Governor of Hong Kong from the Chief Justice of Hong Kong and the Honourable Mr. Whittall on coolie emigration ; " "and, of reply of the Governor thereto." 1869 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 23 February 1869 ; -- for, "copies of all correspondence which commenced about October 1867 between Major General Guy, C.B., then in command of Her Majesty's troops in China and Japan, and the War Office, relative to the scale of consolidated allowances promulgated in 1866, for the officers serving in China and Japan ; " "and, of the statement handed by the officer commanding the troops in Japan in October 1867 to the Major General at his inspection of the 9th Regiment of Infantry relating to it." 1869 Kaye, J.W. Return to an address of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 6 August 1869;-for, copy of papers relating to the route of captain W.C. McLeod from Moulmein to the frontiers of China, and to the route of Dr. Richardson on his fourth mission to the Shan provinces of Burmah, or extracts from the same. 1869 Sykes, Colonel ; Monsell, William. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 29 July 1869 ; -- for, "copy of all correspondence, memorials, replies to memorials, and papers relating to the ordinances of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, whereby a government farm of gambling houses has been created in that colony, or relating to the revenue derived or to be derived from the same, and the appropriation of such revenue." 1870 China, etc. (Legation buildings) : Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons dated 22 july 1870, for Copy of memorandum showing details of estimate for legation and consular buildings in China and Japan. 1871 Hugessen, Edward ; Knatchbull-Hugessen, Brabourne ; Bowring, John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 31 March 1871 ; -- for, "copy of further correspondence, memorials, replies to memorials, and despatches or extracts relating to the gambling houses licence system in Hong Kong (in continuation of parliamentay paper, no. 409, of session 1868-9)." 1873 Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 24 april 1873 : - for, copy of memorial of the Association of the Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom to the right honourable William Ewart Gladstone ... and of the appendix and maps attached to the same. Rangoon and Western China, no. 28-I., of Session 1867-8, and no. 192, of session 1868. 1873 Gladstone, W.E. Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 24 april 1873 ; -- for, copy "of memorial of the Association of the Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom to the right honourable William Ewart Gladstone, M.P., First Lord of Her Majesty's Treasury, dated the 17th day of February 1873 ; and of the appendix and maps attached to the same, the maps to be in outline only (in continuation of parliamentary papers, 'Rangoon and Western China, ' no. 28-I., of session 1867-8, and no. 192, of session 1868)." 1873 Duddell, George. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 20 June 1872 ; -- for, copy "of correspondence between Mr. George Duddell, late of Hong Kong (and his legal advisers), and the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, relative to his claim for compensation out of the unapplied balance of the Chinese indemnity fund, in respect of losses sustained by him at the hands of the Chinese authorities, whilst in fulfilment of contracts with the government for the supply of Her Majesty's forces." 1874 Post office (East India, China and Japan mails contract) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 1 August 1874 ; - for, copy "of a contract, dated the 1st day of August 1874, between the Postmaster General and the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company for the conveyance of the East India, China, and Japan mails, together with copy of a Treasury minute, dated the 1st day of August 1874, thereon: and copy of a memorandum by the Postmaster General relating thereto." 1879 Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 13 February 1879 ; - for, copy "of a contract dated the 7th day of February 1879, entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, for the conveyance of the mails between this country and India and China ; together with a copy of a Treasury minute, dated the 12th day of February 1879, thereto." 1879 Selwin-Ibbetson, Henry. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 13 February 1879;-for, copy "of contract dated the 7th day of February 1879, entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, for the Conveyance of the Mails between this country and India and China; together with copy of a Treasury Minute, dated the 12th day of February 1879, thereon" 1880 Pope-Hennessy, John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated February 1880, for, Copy of Report of the Commissioners appointed by His Excellency John Pope Hennessy to inquire into the working of the Contagious Diseases Ordinance, 1867. 1881 Herbert, Robert. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 26 July 1881 ; -- for, "copy or extracts of any despatches from the governor of Hong Kong in 1877 and in 1881 respecting restrictions laid upon the Chinese merchants, with a view of reserving the central portion of the town of Victoria for English and foreign firms:", "and, of copy or extracts of despatches respecting the attempts made to drive out the Chinese by regulations as to Chinese graves, sanitation, and the compulsory publication of Chinese partnership." 1882 Courtney, Leonard Henry. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons dated 13 February 1882 for "Copy or extracts of further correspondence regarding the sanitary condition of Hong Kong and alleged restrictions upon the Chinese (in continuance of the Return to the Address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated the 26th day of July 1881. H.C. 426)". 1887 Post office mail contract (East India and China) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 21 March 1887 ; - for, copy "of a contract, dated the 18th day of March 1887, for the conveyance of the East India and China mails, together with a copy of the minute of the Treasury with regard thereto." 1888 East India and China (Exports and imports) : Return, to an order of the Honourable the House of commons, dates 12 April 1888 ; for Return "for each year since 1870, of the value, computed or declared, of the manufacture, produce, and bullion. -- 1. Exported from the United Kingdom to India and China, and Hong Kong. 2. Imported into the United Kingdom from India, China, and Hong Kong. 3. Exported from India to China and Hong Kong. 4. Imported into India from China and Hong Kong." 1897 Post Office (East India, China, and Australia mails ; and Australian mails). Return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 18th June 1897 ; -- for, copy of contracts (2), dated 25th May 1897, which have been entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company and the Orient Steam Navigation Company, respectively, for (1) the eastern and part of the Australian mail service, (2) the other part of the Australian mail service, together with copy of the Treasury minute thereon, dated 29th May 1897. 1901 Wars in South Africa and China (cost and expenditure) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 30 April 1901, for : return of estimated cost of wars in South Africa and China, showing how the expenditure is to be met. 1902 Wars in South Africa and China, cost and expenditure. Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 April 1902. 1903 Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 4 March 1903 ; -- for, "return giving modus vivendi adopted with regard to consular jurisdiction in International Settlement at Shanghai." 1903 Wars in South Africa and China (cost and expenditure) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 27 April 1903, for : return showing (1) the estimated amount of war charges in South Africa and China incurred up to the 31st day of March 1903 ; (2) how these charges have been met ; and (3) how the money borrowed has been raised. 1907 Chung, Wallace B. Post office (Liverpool and Hong Kong mail contract) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1907, for copy "of the contract, dated the 2nd day of February 1907, with the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, for the conveyance of the mails between Liverpool and Hong Kong." |
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| 9 | 1855-1911 | Griffith John ist Missionar der London Missionary Society in Hankou (Hubei), Hunan und Sichuan. Er gründet Schulen und Spitäler. 1861 reist er von Shanghai und gründet über 100 Missionen in Hubei und Hunan. Er kehrt 1912 nach England zurück. |
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| 10 | 1868-1884 | Stephen Livingston Baldwin ist Gründer und Herausgeber des The Chinese recorder. 1868-1870, 1880-1884 |
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| 11 | 1870-1872 | Justus Doolittle ist Herausgeber des Chinese recorder. |
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| 12 | 1874-1877 | Alexander Wylie ist Herausgeber des Chinese recorder. |
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| 13 | 1878-1879 |
Guo Songtao besucht am 30. Dez. 1878 als erster Chinese ein Theaterstück von William Shakespeare : Hamlet : a tragedy in five acts as arragned for the stage by Henry Irving im Lyceum Theatre in London. Er schreibt im Tagebuch (Jan. 1879) : "In the evening, I was invited to go to London Lyceum Theatre to see a Shakespeare production. Emphasis was placed on the lively and attractive plot design of the play, and not on florid language and ornate style". |
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| 14 | 1885-1886 |
Guiffrey, Jules. Inventaire générale du mobilier de la Couronne sous Louis XIV. (Paris : Au siège de la Société, 1885-1886). [Enthält chinesische Kunstwerke]. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6374057w/f14.image. |
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| 15 | 1885-1889 | Andrew Patton Happer ist Herausgeber des Chinese recorder. |
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| 16 | 1889-1890 | Luther Halsey Gulick ist Herausgeber des Chinese recorder in Shanghai. |
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| 17 | 1891-1893 | Lucius Nathan Wheeler ist Herausgeber des Chinese recorder in Shanghai. |
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| 18 | 1892 | Internationaler Orientalisten-Kongress in Lissabon. |
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| 19 | 1893-1914 | George Field Fitch [et al.] ist Herausgeber des Chinese recorder. |
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| 20 | 1903 |
[Tylor, Edward B.]. Jin hua lun. Ed. by Timothy Richard and W. Gilbert Walshe [ID D23824]. Richard schreibt : "Shakespeare has been called the king of poetry. He was also a famous dramatist." |
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| 21 | 1903 ca.-nach 1922 | Theodore Jackson Eldridge ist Inspektor der Chinese Maritime Customs in Shanghai. |
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| 22 | 1904-1909 | Marinus Willem de Visser ist Übersetzer der niederländischen Botschaft in Tokyo. |
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| 23 | 1915-1950 |
Da han gong bao = Chinese times. ((Vancouver : Tai hon kong bo, 1915-1950). Gegründet durch die Zhi gong tang. 大漢公報 |
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| 24 | 1918-1935 ca. | A.P. Cullen ist Dozent des Anglo-Chinese College in Tianjin. |
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| 25 | 1925 | Film : Xiao peng you = 小朋友 = Little friends, unter der Regie von Zhang Shichuan. Basiert auf Bao Tianxiao's Übersetzung Ku er liu lang ji, eine Adaptation von Malot, Hector. Sans famille. (Paris : Dentu, 1878). |
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| 26 | 1926 | Film : Chan hui = 忏悔 [Repentance] unter der Regie von Bu Wancang nach Tolstoy, Leo. Voskresenie. (Purleigh, Maldon : V. Tchertkoff, 1899). |
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| 27 | 1926 | Film : Yi chuan zhen zhu = 一串珍珠 von Chang Cheng Film Company, nach der Übersetzung von Hou Yao, unter der Regie von Li Zeyuan nach Maupassant, Guy de. La parure. In : Le Gaulois ; 17 févr. (1884). = In : L'héritage. (Paris : E. Flammarion, 1888). |
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| 28 | 1926 | Film : Wei jun zi = 伪君子 unter der Regie von Hou Yao nach Molière. L'imposteur, ou, Le Tartuffe : comédie. (Paris : Jean Ribou, 1669). [Uraufführung Versailles 1664]. |
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| 29 | 1926 | Film : Kong gu lan = 空谷兰 [Lonely orchid] unter der Regie von Zhang Shichuan nach der japanischen Übersetzung Yureito von Kuroiwa Ruikô, einer Adaptation von Williamson, Alice Muriel. A woman in grey. (London : G. Routledge & Sons, 1898). |
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| 30 | 1926 |
Bartók, Béla. Der wunderbare Mandarin : Pantomime in einem Akt. (Wien : Universal-Edition, 1926). Nach Vorlage von Menyhért Lengyel. Uraufführung Köln 1926. Frank Stahl : Der Chinese verkörpert China : das Unbekannte, Unheimliche und Geheimnisvolle. |
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| 31 | 1927 | Erster chinesischer Stummfilm von Nü lü shi [The woman lawyer] = 女律师 = The merchant of Venice von William unter der Regie von Qiu Yixiang und Li Pingqian. |
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| 32 | 1928 |
Film : Shao nai nai de shan zi = 少奶奶的扇子 [The young mistress's fan] in der Übersetzhung von Hong Shen, unter der Regie von Zhang Shichuan nach Wilde, Oscar. Lady Windermere's fan. (London : Elkin Mathews and John Lane, 1893). (Kline/Roethke collection). [Erstaufführung 1892 St. James Theatre London]. Hong Shen was not satisfied with the several versions of translation as 'they were not appropriate to the Chinese theatre'. He translated it again, and made many changes according to his own taste. As one critic observes, "All the place names and the names of persons are given in common Chinese names, and the details of everyday life are also adapted to Chinese custom and convention. Only the main theme and the general spirit of the play, plus the plot and setting, remained with the original style". Mao Dun : "Five hundred tickets were sold out immediately, and they had to issue two hundred extra tickets. After the first night personages of various circles in Shanghai strongly demanded extra performances." |
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| 33 | 1929 |
Lu, Xun. Lu Xun lun mei shu. (Dalian : Da zhong shu dian, 1948). [Lu Xun on arts]. 魯迅論美術 Lu Xun published a catalogue of twelve paintings by Aubrey Beardsley (Biyazili hua xuan. (1929). Beardsley's paintings were introduced in an organized and focused manner, not just reproduced separately as illustrations. According to Lu Xun, Beardsley was the most widely known painter in black-and-white painting and greatly influenced Chinese modern art. Unique in the unstable society of 1890s, Beardsley was incomparable in the area of decorative arts and a pioneer of xin de yi shu [new art] during fin-de-siècle. In Beardsley's paintings, the folly and ugliness of the upper class and people indulging in sensual pleasures are often shown. Therefore, he was regarded as an indecent and offensive artist by some of his contemporaries. This painter, seen through the eyes of Lu Xun and others, was a talented and artistic rebel who was the spokesperson for uninhibited beauty and desires. |
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| 34 | 1929 |
Lehár, Franz. Das Land des Lächelns : romantische Operette in drei Akten. (Leipzig : W. Karczag, 1929). Das Stück spielt in Wien und Peking im Jahre 1912. Uraufführung in der ersten Fassung unter dem Titel Die gelbe Jacke, Wien 1923. Uraufführung Berliner Metropol-Theater, 1929. Frank Stahl : Im Zusammenspiel von Trivialität, Kitsch und Exotismus als Lebenseinstellung wird der Chinese Sou Chong als der unheimliche Mann Konstituiert, demgegenüber der europäische Mann als guter Kamerad. |
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| 35 | 1929-1978 | Margaret H. Brown forscht und schreibt Bücher. |
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| 36 | 1930 | Film : Ye cao xian hua = 野草闲花 [Wild flower among the weeds] unter der Regie von Sun Yu nach Dumas, Alexandre fils. La Dame aux camélias. Vol. 1-2. (Paris : A. Cadot ; Bruxelles : Lebègue, 1848). |
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| 37 | 1930 | Ellen Catleen kommt in China an und arbeitet als Karikaturistin. |
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| 38 | 1931 | Film : Ya sen luo bin = 亚森罗宾 unter der Regie von Li Pingqian nach Lebland, Maurice. Arsène Lupin, gentleman-cambrioleur. (Paris : R. Lafitte, 1915). |
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| 39 | 1931-1932 | Heinrich Manfred Jettmar untersucht als Arzt im Auftrag des chinesischen Gesundheitsministeriums die Pestbekämpfung in Shanxi und Shaanxi. |
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| 40 | 1931-ca. 1953 | Mauris Heinrichs hält sich in China auf. |
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| 41 | 1932 | Film : Yi ye hao hua = 一夜豪华 [One night of wealth] unter der Regie von Shao Zuiweng nach Maupassant, Guy de. La parure. In : Le Gaulois ; 17 févr. (1884). = In : L'héritage. (Paris : E. Flammarion, 1888). |
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| 42 | 1934-1937 |
Cao, Yu. Lei yu = Thunderstorm. In : Wen xue ji kan ; vol. 1, no 3 (1934). = (Shanghai : Wen hua sheng huo chu ban she, 1936). (Wen xue cong kan ; 1). [Uraufführung in Nanjing 1936]. 雷雨 Cao Yu writes in the preface to Tunderstorm : "Critics have regarded me as a disciple of Ibsen, or conjectured that certain parts of the play are inspired by Euripides' 'Hippolytus' or Racine's 'Phedre'. I am still myself, be so small as I am. I cannot fathom the profundity of the masters, just as the beetle in the dark wonders about the brightness of the day. Over the past decade I have read several plays and have performed in them. However hard I try, I still wonder which part of the play I have deliberately imitated. Perhaps at the lower stratum of my subconsciousness, I have deluded myself : I am an ungrateful servant. I have stolen thread by thread the golden yarn of my master's house, and woven my ugly garment out of the stolen threads and deny the discolored threads (now in my hands) remain the master's." Cao, Yu. Ri chu = The sunrise. (Shanghai : Wen hua sheng huo chu ban she, 1936). 日出 Cao Yu writes in the postscript to The sunrise : "It is a novel attempt, which I have seen in O'Neill's plays and I know it has been successful." Cao, Yu. Yuan ye. = The wilderness. (Shanghai : Wen hua sheng huo chu ban she, 1937). 原野 Cao Yu writes in the postscript to The wilderness : "I had trouble writing the third act. I have adoped two techniques that O'Neill uses in The emperor Jones – the drums and the gunshots in two of my scenes. At first I didn't think he exerted any influence on me, but after I finished writing and read it twice, I felt I was unconsciously influenced by him. The two techniques, to be sure, belong to O'Neill, and if they are aptly used, they are created out of O'Neill's ingenuity, not mine." Sekundärliteratur Cheng Fu-tsai : Cao Yu is fascinated with Greek drama, Aeschylus and Euripides. Several of Shakespeare's plays have influenced him considerably while in college and he was influenced by Eugene O'Neill. Cao Yu's plays, especially The wilderness and Thunderstorm bear a striking resemblance to O'Neill's plays in many aspects. Both of them, for example, employ the expressionistic technical devices to enhance the dramatic effect on the stage. There are also similarities in characterization, the connection between the individual and the race or society and the use of symbols. One remarkable similarity is the treatment of the conflicts of the inner world. In The wilderness Cao Yu adapts O'Neill's The emperor Jones to a Chinese background. Cao Yu does not merely borrow the structure, theme and expressionistic devices from The emperor Jones. He has successfully blended the expressionism of O'Neill with his own realistic portrayal of Chou Hu's regression into a delirious state. Liu Haiping : All these plays are indebted in different degrees to O'Neill in terms of characterization and stagecraft. We find striking parallels between Abbie in Desire under the elms and Fan Yi, the heroine in Thunderstorm, who is also a stepmother with an incestuous longing for her stepson. Robert in Beyond the horizon parallels Zhou Chong in Thunderstorm, also a younger brother with a touch of the poet and a longing for beauty beyond the horizon. Anna in Anna Christie and Chen Bailu, the heroine in Sunrise are both prostitutes hurled into intense suffering by the evil forces of life. Like O'Neill, Cao Yu uses the hallucinatory scenes not only to externalize the haunting memories of the character and explain the source of his tragedy, but also to present a brief, panoramic review of the nation's past. Joseph S.M. Lau : The wilderness resembles the American prototype in 'its bold and inventive use of grotesque images, disconnected plots, contrived symbolism, and deliberate pauses between the already sparse dialogues to create tension'. Chen David Y. : Wilderness adopts the form and technique from its prototypes with so much flexibility that it works out a pattern of its own. Wilderness seems to follow The emperor Jones in the artistic pursuit, lending itself to the expressionistic treatment of emotion through advanced stagecraft and extensive use of symbolism. Horst Frenz : The main character Zhou Fanyi in Thunderstorm is modeled upon Abbie Putnam in Desire under the elms. Like Abbie, Fanyi longs for her stepson. Their incestuous passion becomes a most eloquent and powerful expression of their defiance of traditional morals. |
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| 43 | 1936 | Film : Dao zi ran qu = 狂欢之夜 [Go to nature] unter der Regie von Sun Yu nach Barrie, J.M. The admirable Crichtong : a fantasy in four acts. (London : Miss Slater, 1903). [MS. Erstaufführung Lyceum Theatre, New York 1903]. |
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| 44 | 1936 | Film : Kuang huan zhi ye = 狂欢之夜 [A night of madness] unter der Regie von Shi Dongshan nach Gogol, Nikolai Vasil'evich. Revizor : komediia v piati dieistviiakh. (Sankt Petersburg : Tip. A. Pliushara, 1836). |
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| 45 | 1937 | Film : Yao qian shu = 摇钱树 [The money tree] unter der Regie von Tan Youliu nach O'Casey, Sean. Juno and the paycock. (London : Macmillan, 1925). [Erstaufführung Royalty Theatre, London 1925]. |
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| 46 | 1937 | Film : Yong yuan de weixiao = 永远的微笑 [Eternal smile] unter der Regie von Wu Cun nach Tolstoy, Leo. Voskresenie. (Purleigh, Maldon : V. Tchertkoff, 1899). |
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| 47 | 1938 | Film : Caihua nü = 茶花女 [Camille] unter der Regie von Li Pingqian nach Dumas, Alexandre fils. La Dame aux camélias. Vol. 1-2. (Paris : A. Cadot ; Bruxelles : Lebègue, 1848). |
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| 48 | 1938 | Brandstiftung durch die chinesischen Befehlshaber von Changsha (Hunan) und Zerstörung des Hudson-Taylor- Hospitals. |
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| 49 | 1939 | Film : Nü da si jia = 女大思嫁 [Two daughters] unter der Regie von Xiao Jun nach Fauchois, René. Prenez garde à la peinture : comédie en 3 actes. (Paris : Ed. de l'Illustration ; Ed. du Dauphin, 1932). (La petite illustration ; no 574 ; Théâtre ; no 299). [Erstaufführung Théâtre des Mathurins, le 21 février 1932]. |
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| 50 | 1939 | Film : Shao nai nai de shan zi = 少奶奶的扇子 [The young mistress's fan] unter der Regie von Li Pingqian nach Wilde, Oscar. Lady Windermere's fan. (London : Elkin Mathews and John Lane, 1893). (Kline/Roethke collection). [Erstaufführung 1892 St. James Theatre London]. |
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| 51 | 1939 | Film : Jin yin shi jie = 金银世界 [A world with money] unter der Regie von Li Pingqian nach Pagnol, Marcel. Topaze : pièce en quatre actes. (Paris : Fasquelle, 1930). |
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| 52 | 1940 | Film : Hu di e fu ren = 蝴蝶夫人 [Madame Butterfly] unter der Regie von Huang Dai nach Long, John Luther. Madame Butterfly. (New York, N.Y. : Century, 1898). (Wright American fiction ; vol. 3). |
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| 53 | 1940 | Film : Hun gui li hen tian = 魂归离恨天 [To die for love] unter der Regie von Xu, Xiaogu nach Bell, Ellis [Brontë, Emily]. Wuthering heights : a novel. (London : T.C. Newby, 1847). = A new ed. rev., with a biographical notice of the authors, a selection from their literary remains, and a preface, by Currer Bell [Charlotte Brontë]. (London : Smith, Elder, 1850). |
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| 54 | 1940 | Film : Zhongguo Yeren Wang = 中国野人王 [The Chinese Tarzan] unter der Regie von Hou Yao, Yin Haiqing nach Burroughs, Edgar Rice. Tarzan of the apes. (New York, N.Y. : A.L. Burt, 1914). |
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| 55 | 1940-1945 | Alfred Dreifuss ist im Exil in Shanghai. |
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| 56 | 1941 | Film : Fu huo = 复活 [The resurrection] unter der Regie von Mei Qian nach Tolstoy, Leo. Voskresenie. (Purleigh, Maldon : V. Tchertkoff, 1899). |
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| 57 | 1941 |
Li, Qinghua. Yao wang : san mu ju. (Chongqing : Tian di chu ban she, 1944). 遥望 : 三幕劇 Adaptation of Beyond the horizon by Eugene O'Neill in Chongqing. The adaptation was set in a Chinese village, retained much of the original plot and characterization. Two young cousins, one a romantic poet and the other a practical farmer, fall in love with the same girl in the neighborhood. The triangle leads to the mismatch of the poet and the girl and mismanagement of the farm, on the one hand, and the self-imposed exile of the elder cousin, the practical farmer, on the other. The play ends in similar disillusionment in life for all three characters involved. The major alteration mad in the Chinese version lies in what it is that lures mankind beyond the horizon |
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| 58 | 1942 | Yang Lien-sheng erhält den M.A. des Department of History der Harvard University. |
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| 59 | 1942 | Film : Si zimei = 四姊妹 [Four sisters] unter der Regie von Li Pingqian nach Austen, Jane. Pride and prejudice : a novel. Vol. 1-3. (London : T. Egerton, 1813). |
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| 60 | 1943 | Film : Hong fen zhi yi = 红粉知己 [Confidantes] unter der Regie von Wu Wenchao nach Brontë, Charlotte. Jane Eyre : an autobiography. Vol. 1-3. (London : Smith, Elder, 1847). [= Jian Ai]. |
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| 61 | 1943 | Film : Qing chao = 情潮 [Tide of passion] unter der Regie von Griffin Yue Feng nach Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina. (Moskva : Tip. T. Ris, 1877-1878). |
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| 62 | 1943 | Film : Ri ben jian die = 日本间谍 [Japanese spy] unter der Regie von Yuan Congmei nach Vespa, Amleto. Secret agent of Japan : A handbook to Japanese imperialism. (London : Little, Brown & Co, 1938). |
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| 63 | 1943-1945 | E.T.C. Werner wird von den Japanern in Weixin (Shandong) interniert. |
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| 64 | 1946 | Film : Da lei yu = 大雷雨 [The storm] unter der Regie von Chen Kengran nach Ostrovsky, Aleksandr Nikolaevich. Groza. ([S.l. : s.n.], 1859). |
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| 65 | 1947 | Film : Huang jin hu = 黄金潮 [Gold fever] unter der Regie von Zuo Ji, Tan Xinfeng nach Gogol, Nikolai Vasil'evich. Revizor : komediia v piati dieistviiakh. (Sankt Petersburg : Tip. A. Pliushara, 1836). |
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| 66 | 1948 | Film : Ye dian = 夜店 [Night Inn] durch das Wenhua Studio, geschrieben von Ke Ling, unter der Regie von Huang Zuolin. In der Hauptrolle Zhou Xuan als Meimei und Zhang Fa als Yang Qi ; nach Gorky, Maxim. Na dne. (Moskau : Aprelevskii zavod, 1902). [The lower depths]. |
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| 67 | 1948 | Film : Zai sheng yuan = 再生缘 [A reborn romance] unter der Regie von Hong Zhonghao nach Tolstoy, Leo. Voskresenie. (Purleigh, Maldon : V. Tchertkoff, 1899). |
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| 68 | 1948 | Film : Ya qi = 哑妻 [Dumb wife] unter der Regie von Wu Renzhi nach France, Anatole. La comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette. (Paris : E. Champion, 1912). |
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| 69 | 1948 | Film : Miao shao tou xiang = 妙手偷香 [To steal a sweetheart] unter der Regie von Wu Hui nach Gogol, Nikolai Vasil'evich. Revizor : komediia v piati dieistviiakh. (Sankt Petersburg : Tip. A. Pliushara, 1836). |
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| 70 | 1948 | Ausstellung Contemporary Chinese paintings im Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. |
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| 71 | 1949 | Film : Dang fu xin = 荡妇心 [A forgotten woman] unter der Regie von Griffin Yue Fang nach Tolstoy, Leo. Voskresenie. (Purleigh, Maldon : V. Tchertkoff, 1899). |
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| 72 | 1949 | Film : Huan tian xi di = 欢天喜地 [Overjoyed] unter der Regie von Zheng Xiaoqiu, basierend auf dem chinesischen Theaterstück Du jin, einer Adaptation von Labiche, Eugène Marin ; Martin, Edouard. La poudre aux yeux : comédie en deux actes. (Paris : M. Lévy frères, 1861). |
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| 73 | 1949 | Film : Biao = 表 [The watch] unter der Regie von Huang Zuolin nach Panteleev, Leonid Ivanovich. Casy. [Die Uhr]. (1928). |
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| 74 | 1950 | Edgar Wickberg erhält den M.A. in History der University of Oklahoma. |
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| 75 | 1950 | Rhoads Murphey promoviert nach B.A. und M.A. der Harvard University in Far Eastern History und Geography an der Harvard University. | |
| 76 | 1950 | Film : Hao men nie qian = 豪门孽债 [The insulted and injured] unter der Regie von Liu Qiong nach Dostojewskij, Fjodor Michailowitch. Unizhennye i oskorblennye : roman v chetyrekh chastiakh s epilogom. (St. Petersburg : E. Pratsa, 1861). ). = The insulted and injured. In : The novels of Fyodor Dostoevsky. Transl. from the Russian by Constance Garnett. (London : Heinemann, 1915). = Erniedrigte und Beleidigte : Roman. (Berlin : Martin Maschler, 1914). |
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| 77 | 1950 | Film : You qi wei gan = 油漆未干 [Wet peint] unter der Regie von Quyang Yuqian nach Fauchois, René. Prenez garde à la peinture : comédie en 3 actes. (Paris : Ed. de l'Illustration ; Ed. du Dauphin, 1932). (La petite illustration ; no 574 ; Théâtre ; no 299). [Erstaufführung Théâtre des Mathurins, le 21 février 1932]. |
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| 78 | 1951 | Film : Hua gu niang = 花姑娘 [Flora] unter der Regie von Zhu Shilin nach Maupassant, Guy de. Boule de suif. In : Les soirées de Médan. (Paris : Charpentier, 1880). = (Paris : A. Magnier, 1897). (Collection des dix). |
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| 79 | 1951-1953 | Helga Scherner studiert am Ostasiatischen Institut der Universität Leipzig, dann an der Humboldt-Universität Berlin. |
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| 80 | 1952 | Film : Dao chu re ren lian = 到处惹人怜 [Everyone's darling] unter der Regie von Li Chenfeng nach Malot, Hector. Sans famille. (Paris : Dentu, 1878). |
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| 81 | 1952 | Film : Zhen zhu lei = 珍珠泪 [Pearly tears] unter der Regie von Yin Haiqing nach Steinbeck, John. The pearl. (New York, N.Y. : Viking Press, 1947. |
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| 82 | 1952 | Film : Bu zhi dao de fu qin = 不知道的父亲 [Unknown father] unter der Regie von Shu Shi nach Shkvarkin, Vasilii Vasil'evich. Chuzhoi rebenok : komediia v 3 aktakh. (Moskva : Vsekdram, Otdel rasprostraneniia, 1933). |
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| 83 | 1953 | David S. Nivison promoviert in Chinese an der Harvard University. |
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| 84 | 1953 | Chauncey S. Goodrich erhält den M.A. der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 85 | 1954 | Film : Da di = 大地 [The good earth] unter der Regie von Li Chenfeng nach Buck, Pearl S. The good earth. (New York, N.Y. : John Day, 1931). |
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| 86 | 1954 | Film : Hu di e fu ren = 蝴蝶夫人 [Madame Butterfly] unter der Regie con chen Pi nach |
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| 87 | 1955 | Maurice J. Meisner erhält den M.A. der University of Chicago. |
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| 88 | 1955 | Film : Zi jun bie hou = 自君别后 [Forever goodbye] unter der Regie von Wang Yin nach Long, John Luther. Madame Butterfly. (New York, N.Y. : Century, 1898). (Wright American fiction ; vol. 3). |
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| 89 | 1955 | Film : Shi cha zhuan yuan = 视察专员 [The inspector general] unter der Regie von Yu Huang nach Gogol, Nikolai Vasil'evich. Revizor : komediia v piati dieistviiakh. (Sankt Petersburg : Tip. A. Pliushara, 1836). |
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| 90 | 1955 | Film : Tian chang di jiu = 天长地久 [Everlasting love] unter der Regie von Lee Tit und dem Drehbuch von Ko Wong nach Dreiser, Theodore. Sister Carrie. (London : Heinemann, 1901). (The dollar library of American fiction). |
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| 91 | 1955 |
Film : Chun can meng duan = 春残梦断 [Anna] unter der Regie von Li Chenfeng und dem Drehbuch von Li Chenfeng nach Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina. (Moskva : Tip. T. Ris, 1877-1878). |
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| 92 | 1955 | Film : Daisi gu niang = 黛丝姑娘 [Tess] unter der Regie von Jiang Weiguang nach Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the d'Urbervilles. (London : James R. Osgood, McIlvaine and Co., 1891). |
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| 93 | 1956 | Noël Barnard promoviert an der Australian National University. |
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| 94 | 1956 | Film : Fu lan jie jie = 馥兰姐姐 [Mother dearest] unter der Regie von Mok Hong-si nach Alcott, Louisa May. Little women, or, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy. (Boston : Roberts, 1868). |
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| 95 | 1956 | Film : Mei gu = 梅姑 [The orphan girl] unter der Regie von Yan Jun nach Brontë, Charlotte. Jane Eyre : an autobiography. Vol. 1-3. (London : Smith, Elder, 1847). [= Jian Ai]. |
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| 96 | 1956 | Film : Hua luo you fen jun = 花落又逢君 [Till we meet again] unter der Regie von Tao Qin nach Dumas, Alexandre fils. La Dame aux camélias. Vol. 1-2. (Paris : A. Cadot ; Bruxelles : Lebègue, 1848). |
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| 97 | 1956 | Film : Xing hua xi zhi lian = 杏花溪之恋 [The result of vanity] unter der Regie von Wang Yin und dem Drehbuch von Situ Ming nach Winsor, Kathleen. Forewer Amber. (New York, N.Y. : Macmillan, 1944). |
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| 98 | 1956 | Film : Jiao jiao nü = 娇娇女 [Precious daughter] unter der Regie von Huang Dai und dem Drehbuch von Mung Yan nach France, Anatole. La comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette. (Paris : E. Champion, 1912). |
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| 99 | 1957 | Chalmers Johnson erhält den M.A. in Political Science der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 100 | 1957 | Film : Qing chang ru zhan chang = 情场如战场 [Battle of love] unter der Regie von Griffin Yue Feng nach Shulman, Max ; Smith, Robert Paul. The tender trap : a comedy. (New York, N.Y. : Random House, 1955). |
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| 101 | 1957 | Film : Hun gui li hen tian = 魂归离恨天 [Love singers on] unter der Regie von Zuo ji nach Bell, Ellis [Brontë, Emily]. Wuthering heights : a novel. (London : T.C. Newby, 1847). = A new ed. rev., with a biographical notice of the authors, a selection from their literary remains, and a preface, by Currer Bell [Charlotte Brontë]. (London : Smith, Elder, 1850). |
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| 102 | 1957 | Film : Xiao fu ren = 小妇人 [Four daughters] unter der Regie von Wu Hui und dem Drehbuch von Cheng Kang nach Alcott, Louisa May. Little women, or, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy. (Boston : Roberts, 1868)]. |
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| 103 | 1957 | Film : Wang hun gu = 亡魂谷 [The valley of lost soul] unter der Regie von Yan Jun und dem Drehbuch von Chen Dieyi nach Busch, Niven. Duel in the sun. (New York, N.Y. : Hampton ; distributed by W. Morrow and Co., 1944). |
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| 104 | 1957 | Film : Yue luo wu ti shuang man tian = 月落乌啼霜满天 [The frosty night] unter der Regie von Yan Jun und dem Drehbuch von Huang Feng nach Gorky, Maxim. Na dne. (Moskau : Aprelevskii zavod, 1902). [The lower depths]. |
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| 105 | 1958 | Samuel C. Chu promoviert an der Columbia University. |
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| 106 | 1958 | John Thomas Meskill promoviert an der Columbia University. |
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| 107 | 1958 | Film : Ta de yi sheng = 她的一生 [The story of her life] unter der Regie von Li Chenfeng und dem Drehbuch von Li Chenfeng nach Maupassant, Guy de. Une vie. In : Gil Blas ; 27 févr. (1883). = (Paris : V. Havard, 1883). |
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| 108 | 1958 | Film : Yi ye feng liu = 一夜风流 [The unforgettable night] unter der Regie von Bu Wancang nach Tolstoy, Leo. Voskresenie. (Purleigh, Maldon : V. Tchertkoff, 1899). |
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| 109 | 1958 | Film : Sheng si lian = 生死恋 [Love in life and death] unter der Regie von Bai Ke nach Dumas, Alexandre fils. La Dame aux camélias. Vol. 1-2. (Paris : A. Cadot ; Bruxelles : Lebègue, 1848). |
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| 110 | 1958 | Film : Mu zi lei = 母子泪 [Mother's tears] unter der Regie von Zong You nach der japanischen Übersetzung Yureito von Kuroiwa Ruikô, einer Adaptation von Williamson, Alice Muriel. A woman in grey. (London : G. Routledge & Sons, 1898). |
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| 111 | 1959 | Film : Yu bu sa hua hua bu hong = 雨不洒花花不红 [Red turn the flowers when down come the showers] unter der Regie von Tu Guangqi, Tian Zeer nach Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the d'Urbervilles. (London : James R. Osgood, McIlvaine and Co., 1891). |
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| 112 | 1959 | Film : Bo li xie = 玻璃鞋 [Glass slippers] unter der Regie von Lu Bang und dem Drehbuch von Chan Wan nach Cendrillon ou la petite pantoufle de verre von Charles Perrault (1697). |
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| 113 | 1960 | Igor de Rachewiltz promoviert an der Australian National University. |
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| 114 | 1960 | Patrick Hanan promoviert an der University of London. |
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| 115 | 1960 | Film : Xiang gui chun qing = 香闺春情 [Romance in the boudoir] unter der Regie von Fei Luyi und dem Drehbuch von Wang Jiping nach Rolland, Romain. Jean-Christophe. Vol. 1-10. (Paris : Ollendorff, 1906-1913). |
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| 116 | 1960 | Film : Chun chao = 春潮 [Torrents of spring] unter der Regie von Tao Qin nach Turgenev, Ivan. Veshnie vody. (Leipzig : W. Gerhard, 1873). |
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| 117 | 1960 | Film : Ci mu xin = 慈母心 [Motherhood] unter der Regie von Zuo Ji und dem Drehbuch von Zuo Ji nach Ibsen, Henrik. Gengangere : et familjedrama i tre akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1881). |
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| 118 | 1960 | Film : Yi ge ming de ming yi = 以革命的名义 [In the name of revolution] unter der Regie von Li Enjie, Shi Daqian nach Shatrov, Mikhail. Imenem revoliutsii : geroicheskaia drama. ([S.l.] : M. Iskusstvo, 1958). |
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| 119 | 1961 | Chalmers Johnson promoviert in Political Science an der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 120 | 1961 | John Wilson Lewis promoviert an der University of California, Los Angeles. |
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| 121 | 1961 | Film : Yi ye nan wang = 一夜难忘 [A night to remember] unter der Regie von Li Chenfeng und dem Drehbuch von Chen Zhao nach Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the d'Urbervilles. (London : James R. Osgood, McIlvaine and Co., 1891). |
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| 122 | 1961 | Film : Ai de jiao yu = 爱的教育 [Education of love] unter der Regie von Robert Chung und dem Drehbuch von Chen Mingqin nach De Amicis, Edmondo. Cuore : libro per ragazzi. (Milano : Treves, 1888). |
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| 123 | 1962 | René Goldman erhält den M.A. in History des East Asian Institute der Columbia University. |
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| 124 | 1962 | Maurice J. Meisner promoviert an der University of Chicago. |
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| 125 | 1962 | Film : You kou nan yan = 有口难言 [Unspeakable truths] unter der Regie von Lou Yizhe und dem Drehbuch von Stephen Soong nach France, Anatole. La comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette. (Paris : E. Champion, 1912). |
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| 126 | 1962 |
Xu, Guozhang. Ying yu. Vol. 1-2. (Beijing : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1962). [English textbook]. 英语 [Enthält eine Adaptation des ersten Kapitels von Jane Eyre von Charlotte Brontë]. Note : "Jane Eyre is a long novel which is quite successful in description of Jane Eyre's childhood. The heroine had a strong character in the beginning, but she gradually gave up her rebellion against feudel sexual discrimination and depended on the landlord Mr. Rochester by willingly being his wife". |
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| 127 | 1963 | Robert M. Hartwell promoviert an der University of Chicago. |
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| 128 | 1963 | John Israel promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 129 | 1964 | Joseph S.M. Lau erhält den M.A. der Indiana University, Bloomington. |
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| 130 | 1964 | Robert J. Poor promoviert in Art History an der University of Chicago. |
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| 131 | 1964 | Morris Rossabi erhält den M.A. der Columbia University. |
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| 132 | 1964 | Film : Du shi kuang xiang qu = 都市狂想曲 [City fantasy] unter der Regie von Wu Jiaxiang und dem Drehbuch von Wang Liuhao nach Gogol, Nikolai Vasil'evich. Revizor : komediia v piati dieistviiakh. (Sankt Petersburg : Tip. A. Pliushara, 1836). |
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| 133 | 1965 | Film : Di yu xin niang = 地狱新娘 unter der Regie von Xin Qi nach Holt, Victoria. Bride of Pendorric. (Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday, 1963). |
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| 134 | 1967 | Donald A. Jordan promoviert an der Universiy of Wisconsin, Madison. |
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| 135 | 1967 | Film : Nü ren, nü ren = 女人 女人 [Woman, woman] unter der Regie von Wu Jiaxiang und dem Drehbuch von Wang Zhibo nach Ostrovsky, Aleksandr Nikolaevich. Groza. ([S.l. : s.n.], 1859). [Der Sturm]. |
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| 136 | 1967 | Ausstellung George Chinnery, 1774-1852, and other artists of the Chinese scene. Peabody Museum of Salem. |
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| 137 | 1967 | China Ausstellung Schlossmuseum Matzen, Aussenstelle des Museums für Völkerkunde. (Wien : Museum für Völkerkunde, 1967. |
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| 138 | 1968 | John E. Schrecker promoviert in History an der Harvard University. |
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| 139 | 1968 | Edmund S.K. Fung erhält den M.A. der University of Hong Kong. |
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| 140 | 1968 | Thomas L. Kennedy promoviert an der Columbia University. |
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| 141 | 1968 | David L. McMullen promoviert an der University of Cambridge. |
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| 142 | 1968 | J.P. Seaton promoviert an der Indiana University, Bloomington. |
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| 143 | 1968 | Alexander Woodside promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 144 | 1968 | Aufführung von L'avare = Sheng cai you dao : san mu wu chang xi ju = 生財有道 : 三幕五場喜劇 von Molière durch den Sino-British Club of Hong Kong, der Chinese Drama Group unter der Regie von Gao Fusheng mit Bao Hanlin. | |
| 145 | 1969 | Stephen FitzGerald promoviert an der Australian National University. |
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| 146 | 1969 | Barry Keenan promoviert an der Claremont Graduate School and University Center. |
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| 147 | 1969 | Zdenka Hermanova-Novotna promoviert am Oriental Institute, Prag, Tschechoslowakei. |
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| 148 | 1970 | Chauncey C. Chu promoviert an der University of Textas, Austin. |
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| 149 | 1970 | Edward J.M. Rhoads promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 150 | 1970 | Film : Xun mu san qian li = 寻母三千里 [Three thousand leagues in search of mother] unter der Regie von Gao Renhe nach De Amicis, Edmondo. Cuore : libro per ragazzi. (Milano : Treves, 1888). |
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| 151 | 1970 | Film : Zuo tian, jin tian, ming tian = 昨天今天明天 [Yesterday, today, tomorrow] unter der Regie von Patrick Lung Kong nach Camus, Albert. La peste. (Paris : Gallimard, 1947). |
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| 152 | 1971 | Edmund S.K. Fung promoviert an der Australian National University. |
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| 153 | 1972 | Victor C. Falkenheim promoviert in Political Science an der Columbia University. |
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| 154 | 1972 | Chad Hansen promoviert an der University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. |
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| 155 | 1972 | Lin Shuen-fu promoviert an der Princeton University. |
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| 156 | 1972 | Wang David Rafael promoviert an der University of Southern California. |
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| 157 | 1973 | David E. Mungello promoviert in History an der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 158 | 1973 | David M. Lampton promoviert an der Stanford University. |
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| 159 | 1973 | Unearthing China's past : exhibition held at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. |
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| 160 | 1974 | Sarah Allan promoviert in Oriental Languages an der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 161 | 1974 | Roger B. Jeans promoviert an der George Washington University, Washington D.C. |
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| 162 | 1974- | Far Eastern affairs : a Russian journal on China, Japan and Asia-Pacific Region. = Problemy Dal'nego Vostoka. (Mosgow : Institute for Far Eastern Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1974-) |
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| 163 | 1974-1989 |
Gründung und Bestehen der Shi dai zhou bao = The Chinese express. (Toronto : McLaren, 1974-1989). 時代周報 |
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| 164 | 1975 | Robin D.S. Yates erhält den M.A. in Oriental Languages der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 165 | 1975 | Robert L. Thorp erhält den M.A. in East Asian Studies der University of Kansas, Lawrence. |
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| 166 | 1976 | Irene Bloom promoviert in East Asian Studies an der Columbia University, New York. |
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| 167 | 1976 | Ronald Egan promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 168 | 1976 | Paul W. Kroll promoviert am Department of Far Eastern Languages and Literatures der University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. |
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| 169 | 1976 | David Faure promoviert an der Princeton University. |
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| 170 | 1977 | Jeffrey C. Kinkley promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 171 | 1977 | Robert L. Thorp promoviert in an der University of Kansas, Lawrence. |
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| 172 | 1978 | Jeffrey K. Riegel promoviert an der Standford University. |
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| 173 | 1978 |
[O'Neill, Eugene]. Chang lu man man ru ye shen. Shi zheng ju zhu ban, Xianggang hua ju tuan di er ji yan chu. (Xianggang : Shi zheng ju, 1978). Hong Kong Repertory Theatre. = O'Neill, Eugene. Long day's journey into night. [Theaterprogramm] 長路漫漫入夜深 |
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| 174 | 1978 | Aufführung von Hei nu =黑奴 von Li Yuanhua. Adaptation von Uncle Tom's cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe durch die Xianggang hua ju tuan ju mu in Hong Kong. | |
| 175 | 1979 | Valerie Hansen erhält den B.A. in Asian Studies der Harvard University. |
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| 176 | 1979 | James L. Hevia erhält den M.A. der Pennsylvania State University. |
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| 177 | 1979 | Richard Vinograd promoviert an der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 178 | 1980 | Robin D.S. Yates promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 179 | 1980 | Peter Nolan promoviert an der School of Oriental and African Studies der University of London. |
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| 180 | 1981 | Aufführung von Gong di = En folkefiende = Ein Volksfeind = An enemy of the people = 公敵 von Henri Ibsen durch das Xianggang hua ju tuan (Hong Kong Repertory Theatre) in der Übersetzung von Zhang Kejian und Mai Qiu unter der Regie von Mai Qiu. | |
| 181 | 1981 | Aufführung von Kong fang zheng ren = The witness for the prosecution = 控方証人 von Agatha Christie, in der Übersetzung von Lu Jingwen durch das Xianggang hua ju tuan ju mu (Hong Kong Repertory Theatre). | |
| 182 | 1982 | Donald J. Harper promoviert an der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 183 | 1982 | Emily Honig promoviert in History an der Stanford University. |
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| 184 | 1982 | Michelle Yeh promoviert in Comparative Literature an der University of Southern California, Los Angeles. |
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| 185 | 1982 | Aufführung von Macbeth von William Shakespeare durch die Chung Ying Theatre Company unter der Regie von Glen Walford in Hong Kong. | |
| 186 | 1982 | Aufführung von The taming of the shrew von William Shakespeare durch das Hong Kong Repertory Theatre unter der Regie von Daniel S.P. Yang. | |
| 187 | 1983 | John R. McRae promoviert an der Yale University, New Haven Conn. |
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| 188 | 1983 | Aufführung von Yi jiu ba si =一九八四 = Nineteen eighty four : a novel von George Orwell durch das Luofuguo jiao yu xue yuan xue sheng hui zhou nian xi ju = Northcote College of Education Students' Association in Hong Kong. |
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| 189 | 1984 | Yeh Wen-hsin promoviert an der University of California, Berkeley. |
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| 190 | 1984- |
Orientalia Venetiana. Fondazione "Giorgio Cini." Centro di cultura e civiltà.; Istituto Venezia e l'oriente. (Firenze : L. Olschki, 1984-). 1984 hrsg. von Mario Sabattini. |
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| 191 | 1984.10.16-21 |
Performance of Andi : Adapation of Anna Christie by Eugene O'Neill. Produced by the Chinese Theatre Association in Beijing, Lui Housheng, president, in association with the Central Dramatic Academy ; adapted by Huang Zongjiang ; directed by George C. White. Ma Shu Yun as Anna and Bao Guo An as Old Chris. Broadcasted by the China Central Television Network. Andi has been sent to Harbin, rather than St. Paul, Minnesota, when her mother died. Her father was now a Fujian sailor and her irish suitor a catholic convert from Canton. Huang Zongjiang explained how he had produced the adaptation : "I have admired the great Ameri¬can dramatist Eugene O'Neill since my youth. When I visited O'Neill's birthplace in the summer of 1980, I had the honour of meeting George White, chairman of the O'Neill Thea¬tre Centre, who expressed to me the hope that he might help direct Anna Christie in China. Four years later, his wish came true. It was a most exciting prospect. Long ago George White asked me to adapt Anna Chri¬stie into a play with a Chinese fla¬vour. I was very hesitant, although earlier adaptations of other foreign dramas into Chinese had been successful…Although the characters and plot in Anna Christie might be found in China, their thoughts, language and features were different, and I was afraid it would not be easy to adapt. But I greatly admired White's wish to sinicize the play and could not refuse him. So, with the help of the teachers and students at the Central Institute of Drama, I made an adaptation based on the original English version and a Chinese translation. However, I didn't produce it until it came time for rehearsal. Is has its imperfections. This is 'a Western meal eaten in the Chinese manner'. I don't need to say any more about its significance, but there is one thing I would like to add : a vast ocean separates our two peoples, but it links us together too, and I bless each of the white sails on it." George C. White : "It is impossible to adequately express my feelings toward the experience I had directing Eugene O'Neill's Anna Christie in Beijing. Aside from the exotic aspect of the venture itself, the excitement of accepting and meeting a challenge of formidable proportions, it was the window through which I was permitted to view a theatrical world strangely similar yet totally different from our own, a world burgeoning with rejuvenated enthusiasm following the fallow years of the so called 'Cultural revolution'. It is a world interested in retaining much of its ancient past, yet anxious to push on into the era of modern drama. In 1980 we had been invited by the Chinese Theater Association to become acquainted with the contemporary Chinese theater scene with the long view of fostering theatrical exchange. In succeeding summers (with the exception of 1982), the O'Neill Center hosted Chinese delegations, all of which were led by noted playwright and film writer Huang Zongjiang. In the fall of 1983 I was officially invited by Mr. Liu Housheng, director of the Chinese Theater Association to direct an O'Neill play of my choice in Beijing the following October. Based on my experience in 1980 and discussion with Mr. Huang, Anna Christie seemed the logical choice. I felt that the story of an old sailor forced to send his only daughter away, unable to care for her after her mother's death, and her subsequent decline into prostitution would strike a responsive and sympathetic chord in audiences only a generation away from the feudal era in China when daughters were sold to landlords or houses of prostitution as preferable alternatives to starvation. In Act three, Anna, in an impulsive moment of passion toward Matt Burke, takes his head in both her hands and holds his face close to hers, staring into his eyes. Then she kisses him full on the lips. This moment would be a problem. The solution to the problem finally lay in the fact that we were doing a Chinese adaptation. Not only is kissing never done on a Chinese stage, it would never be done to a lover by a daughter in front of her father. I concluded that a passionate embrace would serve the same dramatic function ." |
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| 192 | 1985 | Howard L. Goodman promoviert an der Princeton University. |
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| 193 | 1985 |
Aufführung von Huan = Xiao wang zi = Le petit prince von Antoine de Saint-Exupéry durch das Hong Kong Repertory Theatre = Xianggang hua ju tuan unter der Regie von Lin Shangwu. 環 |
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| 194 | 1985 | After the Chinese taste : China's influence in America, 1830-1930. Ausstellung Peabody Museum of Salem. |
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| 195 | 1986 | Charles W. Holcombe promoviert in History an der University of Michigan. |
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| 196 | 1986 | Aufführung von Xi chun jiu dian = L'Hôtel du libre-échange von Georges Feydeau und Maurice Desvallières unter der Regie von Rupert Chan und Bernard Goss in der Chung Ying Theatre Company, Hong Kong. | |
| 197 | 1987 | Beata Grant promoviert an der Stanford University. |
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| 198 | 1987 | Valerie Hansen promoviert an der University of Pennsylvania. |
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| 199 | 1987 | James L. Hevia promoviert an der University of Chicago. |
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| 200 | 1989 | Robert E. Murowchick promoviert an der Harvard University. |
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| 201 | 1989 | Dorothy Ko promoviert an der Stanford University. |
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| 202 | 1989 | Film : Jia ru wo shi zhen de = 假如我是真的 [If I were for real] unter der Regie von Wang Tong und dem Drehbuch von Zhang Yongxiang nach Gogol, Nikolai Vasil'evich. Revizor : komediia v piati dieistviiakh. (Sankt Petersburg : Tip. A. Pliushara, 1836). |
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| 203 | 1989 | Aufführung von The matchmaker von Thornton Wilder unter der Regie von Chen Yinying = Joanna Chan im Xianggang hua ju tuan = Hong Kong Repertory Theatre. | |
| 204 | 1990 | Aufführung von Yu wang cheng guo = The kingdom of desire = 欲望城國 = Adaptation in Form einer Peking Oper von Macbeth von William Shakespeare unter der Regie von Wu Xingguo im The National Theater in Taipei. | |
| 205 | 1991 | Aufführung von Tian hou = As you like it von William Shakespeare durch die Xianggang yan yi xue yuan = The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts unter der Regie von Du Guowei = Kwok-wai Raymond To. | |
| 206 | 1992 | Film : Xue se qing chen = 血色清晨 [The bloody morning] unter der Regie von Li Shaohong und dem Drehbuch von Xiao Mao nach Márquez, Gabriel García. Crónica de una muerte anunciada. (Bogotá, Colombia : Ed. La Oveja negra, 1981). |
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| 207 | 1995 | Aufführung von Tu tou nü gao yin = La cantatrice chauve : pièce von Eugène Ionesco durch das Hong Kong Repertory Theatre = Xianggang hua ju tuan unter der Regie von Tang Shu-wing. | |
| 208 | 1995 | Aufführung von Zhu men yuan fu = Cat on a hot tin roof von Tennessee Williams, Hong Kong Repertory Theatre unter der Regie und in der Übersetzung von Daniel S.P. Yang, 1995. | |
| 209 | 1995 | Österreichisch-chinesische Ausstellung = Sino-Austrian exhibition of women artists, Zhejiang Museum Hangzhou, Parlament Wien Österreich, Meerscheinschloss Graz Österreich. |
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| 210 | 1997- | Christian Wittern ist Mitglied der Association for Computing in the Humanities. |
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| 211 | 1998 | Aufführung von Pei'er Jinte = Peer Gynt = 培爾金特 von Henrik Ibsen durch das Xianggang hua ju tuan (Hong Kong Repertory Theatre) in der englischen Übersetzung von Frank McGuinness, der chinesischen Übersetzung von Chen Junrun unter der Regie von Michael Bogdanov. | |
| 212 | 1999 | Aufführung von Xun han ji : Zhong wen wen ben = The taming of the shrew von William Shakespeare durch die Huang jia Shashibiya ju tuan in Hong Kong. |
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| 213 | 1999- |
Gründung der The Chinese Canadian post = Jia hua win xen. (Toronto : Chinese Canadian post, 1999-) 加華新聞 |
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| 214 | 2005 | Ausstellung und Symposium zum 20. Todestag von Heinrich Böll in Shanghai. |
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| 215 | ????- | Dominic Cheung ist Professor of East Asian Languages and Cultures and Comparative Literature an der University of Southern California, Los Angeles. |
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