Document (Web, 2007-)

Hirschfeld, Christian Cajus Lorenz. Widerlegung des herrschenden Begriffs von den chinesischen Gärten [ID D26952].
Quellen :
Chambers, William.
Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste. Description [ID D1819].
Le Comte, Louis. Nouveaux mémoires sur l'état présent de la Chine... [ID D1771].
Pauw, Cornelius de. Recherches philosophiques sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois [ID D1861].
Er schreibt :
Die chinesischen Gärten oder das, was man unter diesem Namen reizend genug geschildert hat, ist nicht bloss ein Gegenstand der Bewunderung, sondern auch der Nachahmung geworden. Wenn auch gleich schon Nachdenken und Genie, ohne Unterstützung eines besondern Beispiels, auf die Erfindung der neuen Manier leiten konnten, die man in England aufgenommen und die sich von da weiter zu verbreiten angefangen hat ; so ist es doch wahrscheinlich, dass die Nachrichten von den Gärten in China viel dazu beygetragen haben. Wenigstens ist gewiss, dass die neue Manier in England sich um eben die Zeit am meisten hob, als sich der Ruhm der orientalischen Gärten ausbreitete. Nicht minder ist gewiss, dass der Engländer von einem grossen Vorurtheil für die Gärten in China bezaubert ist, und dass der Franzose und mit ihm der Deutsche sich diesem Vorurtheil zu überlassen anfängt. Man verlangt jetzt nicht etwa Gärten, die mit eigener Überlegung, mit besserm Geschmack, als die alten, angelegt wären ; man verlangt chinesische, oder chinesisch-engländische Gärten.
Wie aber, wenn diese Raserei einen unsichern Grund hätte, wie so manche andere Raserei der Mode ? Wenn die chinesischen Gärten, wovon man so entzücket ist, die man so hitzig nachzuahmen strebt, nicht vorhanden wären, wenigstens nicht so vorhanden wären, wie man sich einbildet ? – das wäre doch sonderbar. Freilich wäre es so, und nicht weniger lächerlich, etwas haben nachahmen wollen, wovon man überführt wird, dass es nicht da ist.
Als ich zuerst die Beschreibungen der chinesischen Gärten las, ging es mir, wie vermuthlich manchem andern Leser mehr. Ich fand darin wahre und hohe Schönheiten der Natur, nur das davon abgerechnet, was dem morgenländischen Geschmack eigen ist oder zu seinen Ausschweiffungen gehört. Ich ward von so vielen reizenden Scenen entzückt, und vergass bei dieser Bewegung nachzudenken, ob sich auch alles würklich so verhalten mögte. Ein wiederholtes Lesen liess mir mit einer gelassenen Behagung mehr Ruhe, zu überlegen. Ich fieng an, gegen die Wirklichkeit solcher Gärten hie und da einen Zweifel zu finden, und konnte mich nicth enthalten, einige davon zu äussern. Bei einer nähern Vergleichung verschiedener einsichtsvollen Schriftsteller, die von China handeln, habe ich Gründe entdeckt, die mich noch mehr an dem Daseyn solcher Gärten zweifeln machen, wie man uns die chinesischen beschreibt. Ich theile sie hier zur weitern Berutheilung mit.
China ist, nach den zuverlässigen Zeugnissen der Reisenden, bey weitem nicht so sehr angebauet, als man oft vorgegeben hat. Sogar nahe um Peking gibt es noch einige meilenlange Wüsten und Moräste. Die entlegenen Provinzen liegen fast alle ganz wüste, zum Theil so wüste, dass Tieger und andere wilde Thiere in Menge umherschwärmen. Der Handel versammelt die Einwohner um die Hauptstadt und schönen Flüsse her, wodurch ein so starker Zusammenfluss von Menschen entsteht, dass die oft einreissende Hungersnoth die schrecklichsten Verwüstungen angerichtet hat. In diesen Gegenden, wo sich die Thätigkeit der Nation am meisten äussert, müsste man die so sehr gerühmten Gärten suchen, wenn anders die nothwendige Sorge, durch Ackerbau den harten Bedürfnissen abzuhelfen, noch Zeit und Ruhe zur Anlegung ländlicher Lustplätze verstattete. Je weiter man in die Provinzen hineinkommt, desto weniger trift man bebauete Länder an; nicht die Hälfte des Erdreichs ist genutzt ; nur selten erscheint ein Dorf. Auch weiss man, dass die Chineser wenig Liebe zum Landbau besitzen, die überdies mit dem heissen Wuchergeist, einer fast allgemeinen Seuche der Nation, nicht vereinbar ist.
Comte, du Halde und andere glaubwürdige Zeugen rühmen zwar den Anbau der Küchengewächse in China, wovon die Gärten nie leer sind, weil sich besonders der gemeine Mann davon ernährt. Allein sie bemerken zugleich, dass an der Menge und Manigfaltigkeit der Gewächse und Früchte mehr der gute Erdboden, als die Geschicklichkeit der Einwohner Antheil hat. Die meisten Früchte, setzen sie hinzu, kommen den unsrigen nicht gleich, weil die Chineser nicht die Kunst verstehen oder sich nicht die Mühe nehmen, die Baumfrüchte zu verbessern und ihnen einen mehr anziehenden Geschmack zu geben. Alle ihre Sorgfalt von dieser Seite schränket sich auf den Kornbau und Reisbau ein. Von der Botanik wissen sie fast nichts.
Es ist ausgemacht, dass keine der schönen Künste bei den Chinesern zur Volkommenheit emporgestiegen ist. Von der Perspectiv haben sie nicht den geringsten Begrif. In der Malerei klecken sie Landschaften, worin weder Sehepunkt noch Ferne ist. Die dem Gesicht sich entfernende Linien sind ihnen ebenso unbekannt, als der Punkt, worin sie sich vereinigen müssen, indem sie nicht die geringste Kentnis von den Regeln haben, denen die Würkungen des Lichts unterworfen sind. Mit den Gegenstellungen oder den grossen Massen von Schatten sind sie, wie man leicht hinzu denken kan, ebenfals ganz unbekant. Sie wissen nichts von der Kunst, die Farben zu brechen und zu versetzen. Sie musten also sehr verlegen sey, wenn sie den Prospect eines Gartens vorstellen solten. Ihre Zeichnung ist, wie man weiss, sehr schlecht. Nicht einmal den Blumen, die doch so häufig gemalt werden, verstehen sie die Richtigkeit der Zeichnung zu geben. Ihre wilde Einbildungskraft zieht sie von dem Studium der Natur ab, die eine ruhige und bedächtige Betrachtung erfordert ; wozu die Chineser so wenig, als andere morgenländische Völker, aufgelegt sind.
Schon aus diesen allgemeinen Bemerkungen wird man eben keine grosse Erwartung schöpfen, dass die schöne Gartenkunst von den Chinesern geliebt und mit Glück getrieben werde, viel weniger dass sie Gärten von so vorzüglichen Schönheiten besitzen, wie man uns überreden will.
China ist kein Reich, das erst seit einigen Jahren von den Europäern besucht wurde, oder wohin nur Leute ohne Einsicht, ohne Beobachtungsfeist, ohne Geschmack gekommen wären. Woher komt es, das so viele Reisebeschreiber, so vieles und seit einer so langen Zeit, von China berichten, ohne der so herlichen Gärten der Nation zu erwähnen, und dass man erst in der letzten Hälfte des gegenwärtigen Jahrhunderts angefangen, sie mit einer Art von Begeisterung zu rühmen ? Vielleicht waren sie in den ältern Zeiten noch nicht vorhanden, nicht einmal hie und da in einem vorbereitenden Anfang vorhanden. Allein in diesem Jahrhundert müsten sie doch da seyn. Es sollen ja Gärten seyn, die bei der Nation gewöhnlich, nicht blos diesem oder jenem Grossen eigen sind, Gärten, welche die Nation ohne Beihülfe, ohne Beispiel durch ihr eigenes Genie hervorgebracht hat. Es lässt sich nicht wohl denken, dass solche Gärten so ganz neu seyn oder so verborgen liegen solten, dass sie nur erst vor etwa dreissig Jahren von einem Reisenden hätten bemerket werden können. Wenigstens schon hie und da haben sie längst vorhanden seyn müssen. Die chinesische Nation ist unstreitig keine solche, die auf einmal plötzliche Fortgänge in einer Wissenschaft oder Kunst gemacht hätte ; ihr Genie hat immer nur einen schleichenden Gang genommen, nie einen glücklichen Spring gewagt ; das Vorurtheil für alles, was bei ihr alt geworden, unterstützt ihre natürliche Trägheit. Die paradiesischen Gärten hätten also schon lange blühen müssen, in einer so auffallenden Schönheit, mit so eigenen hervorstechenden Reitzen, dass jeder fremde Auge sie mit Bewunderung hätte wahrnehmen müssen. Und doch ein so tiefes Stillschweigen von so vielen Reisenden, die sie sehen konnten und sehen musten. Vielleicht waren diese Reisende nicht alle Kenner. Der grösste Theil der nach China reisenden Gelehrten bestand aus französischen Jesuiten, die vielleicht entweder keine Einsicht in die Gartenkunst haben oder voll Vorutheil für die Manier ihres Vaterlandes seyn konten. Es mag seyn. Aber so hätten sie doch wenigstens das Eigenthümliche und das Abweichende in dem chinesischen Geschmack bemerken können. Ausserdem waren verschiedene von diesen Missionarien geschickte Architecten und Maler. Die hohen Schönheiten der Natur, welche die chinesischen Gärten darstellen sollen, sind jedem Auge fühlbar. Und der französische Jesuit hätte hier immer eine Ausnahme seyn sollen ? Man weiss, wie sorgfältig diese Missionarien gewesen, alles Merkwürdige in China aufzuzeichnen und ihrem Hofe zu berichten ; man weiss, wie beredt sie zum theil erzählen, sie gerne sie ausschmücken. Sie beschreiben sehr ausführlich die Beschaffenheit des Erdreichs, des Ackerbaues, der Gartengewächse und aller Früchte. Und doch bei den nächsten Veranlassungen, von den Lustgärten zu reden, schweigen sie entweder ganz, oder geben uns nur einige flüchtige Anzeigen, die nichts weniger, als den stolzen Begrif erregen, den man von den Wundern der chinesischen Gärten hat.
Indessen ist es Chambers, Architect des Königs von England, dem man die verführerische Beschreibung der chinesischen Gärten und die algemeine Verbreitung ihres Ruhms verdankt. Dieser Mann, der Wissenschaft, Geschmack und Genie vereinigt, ragt unter allen Reisebeschreibern von China als der Lobredner der Gärten dieses Reichs hervor. Seine Beschreibung ist als die algemeine Quelle anzusehen, woraus alle übrige Schilderungen mit mehr oder weniger Abänderung und Zusätzen geschöpft sind. Die erste Nachricht gab der in seinem grössern Werke : Description of Chinese Buildings, etc. London. Fol. 1757 S. 14-19 zwar nur beiläufig, indem er sich vornehmlich mit den Gebäuden, Maschinen und Hausgeräthen der Chineser beschäftigt. Man lobte, man bewunderte den Geschmack der Gartenkunst, den Chambers den Chinesern beilegte ; man fing an, diesen Geschmack in England nachzuahmen. Ohne Zweifel war dieser Beifall den seine Beschreibung fand, eine Veranlassung mehr, dass er den ersten kurzen Entwurf in einer besondern Schrift : Dissertation on oriental Gardening. London 4. 1772 (deutsche Übersetzung. 8. Gotha 1775) weiter ausführte und darin Genie und Geschmack aufbot, um ein Gemälde zu liefern, das durch Schönheit und Mannigfaltigkeit nicht weniger, als durch Neuheit reitzte.
Man ist sehr geneigt, einen Reisenden, der aus einem entfernten Welttheil komt, wohin ohnedies nur noch wenig Engländer gedrungen waren, erzählen zu hören ; man hört ihn desto aufmerksamer, je mehr er durch das Neue und Unerwartete sich der Bewunderung zu bemeistern weiss ; man hört ihn mit Zutrauen, wenn er als ein Mann von Verstand, und mit Vergnügen, wenn er als ein Mann von Geschmack erzählt. Chambers muste Eingang finden, wenn er gleich weniger die Wahrheit, als das Anziehende seiner Erzählung, auf seiner Seite hatte.
Ich kan es mir vorstellen, wie ein Mann von weniger Talenten und Beobachtung, als Chambers, in einigen Gegenden von China verleitet werden kan, da Gärten zu sehen, wo keine sind. Nach dem Bericht des Comte sind einige fruchtbare Provinzen nicht allein mit vortreflichen Früchten, sondern auch mit anmuthigen Hügeln und Canälen erfült. Die Hügel sind in verschiedene Absätze und Stuffen vom Fusse bis zum Gipfel bearbeitet, aber blos in der Absicht, damit das Regenwasser sich überall vertheilen und das besäete Erdreich mit seinen Pflanzen nicht so leicht hinabreissen könne. Indessen gibt diese Gestalt, worin die Hügel gebildet werden, zuman wenn mehrere in einem Bezirk umherliegen, einen reizenden Anblick. Die Canäle, welche die Plänen durchschneiden, sind von einer ungemeinen Schönheit, sowohl des klaren und sanft dahin fliessenden Wassers, als auch der Einfassungen und Brücken wegen, womit sie bekleidet sind. Sie laufen gemeiniglich zwischen kleinen Erhöhungen auf beiden Seiten, die mit Steinen oder groben Marmorstücken eingefasst sind. Die über diese Canäle geführte Brücken, die zunächst zur Verbindung der Ländereigen dienen, sind von drei bis sieben Bögen, wovon der mittelste oder Hauptbogen gehr hoch ist, damit die Fahrzeuge darunter bequem hinwegfahren können. Die Gewölbe sind von grossen Stücken von Steinen erbauet, die Pfeiler aber so schmal, dass man in der Ferne glaubt, die Bögen schweben in der Luft. Man sieht solche Brücken von einer Strecke zur andern, und wenn, wie gewöhnlich, der Canal grade ist, so macht diese lange Reihe von Brücken eine Art von Allee, die ein prächtiges Ansehen hat. Der Hauptcanal der Provinz theilt sich zur Rechten und Linken in verschiedene kleiner, die sich wieder in eine Menge von Bächen zerschneiden, die an Städte und Dörfer hinlaufen, zuweilen Teiche und Seen bilden, wovon die angränzende Ländereien befruchtet werden. Dieses klare Wasser, hin und wieder in den Plänen vertheilt, mit Brücken verschönert, mit Fahrzeugen belegt, mit Dörfern untermischt, durch welche die Bäche bald hellschimmernd, bald dunkel beschattet ihren Lauf verfolgen, macht unstreitig eins der heitersten Gemälde von Landschaft. „Was würde noch werden, sagt Comte, wenn die Kunst, die oft in Frankreich die wildesten Gegenden durch die Pracht der Paläste, durch Gärten und Lusthayne verschönert, in diesen reichen Gefilden würksam würde, wo die Natur nichts gespart hat“ ? Eine solche Landschaft ist zwar kein Garten ; wie leicht kan sie aber nicht von einem Reisenden, der sich ganz den Entzückungen des Auges überlässt, dafür angenommen werden ?
Indessen ist dis eben nicht der Fall, worin sich Chambers befindet. Er versichert, dass er sich bei den Chinesern genau nach den Grundsätzen erkundigt habe, denên sie bei der Anlage ihrer Gärten folgen. Wenn wir nicht glauben, dass er sich von falschen Nachrichten der Chineser hat blenden lassen, die so gern übertreiben, so gern alles, was ihre Nation betrift, vergrössern ; so lässt sich ein anderer Ausweg zur Erklärung dieser Sache entdecken.
Chambers hatte in seinem Vaterlande bemerkt, dass man theils noch zu sehr der alten Manier anhing, theils bei den neuen Versuchen in Dürftigkeit an Erfindung und in manche Ausschweiffungen verfiel. Er sah es mit Verdruss, dass, da jede andere der schönen Künste so viele Lehrer hätte, die Gartenkunst allein verwaiset zurückbliebe, dass kein Mann für sie auffstand, der sie in ihre Rechte einsetzte. Er fand in seinem Verstand un in seiner Einbildungskraft Ideen, die er der Natur und Bestimmung der Gärten eigenthümlicher hielt, als die gewöhnlichen sind, denen man täglich folgte. Er glaubte, dass diese Ideen mehr Aufmerksamkeit erregen, mehr Aufnahme finden müsten, wenn sie einer entfernten Nation untergeschoben würden, die schon eine würkliche Anwendung davon gemacht hätte. Er hatte Klugheit genug, unter diese Ideen Zusätze zu mischen, die dem Nationalgeist der Chineser eigen sind. Kurz, er pflanzte brittische Ideen auf chinesischen Boden, um ihnen ein mehr auffallendes Ansehen zu geben und sie eindringender zu machen.
Diese Vermuthung wird weniger gewagt scheinen, wenn man ausser allen dem, was oben von den Chinesern angeführt worden und woraus man keine vortheilhafte Begriffe von ihren Gärten zu ziehen veranlasst wird, noch die Beschreibung des Chambers selbst etwas näher betrachtet.
Er fragt nicht, wo die herlichen Gärten, die er malt, liegen ; auch sagt er nicht, dass es Gärten des Kaisers oder dieser und jener Grossen sind. Er nennt sie ganz algemein chinesische Gärten, und scheint uns überreden zu wollen, dass es Gärten der Nation wären, Gärten, die eben so gewöhnlich in China angetroffen würden, als die Französischen in Europa.
Demnächst gesteht er ausdrücklich, dass er weder mit der künstlichen, noch mit der simpeln Manier in der Gartenkunst zufrieden sei. Jene weiche zu ausschweiffend von der Natur ab, diese hingegen sei eine zu gewissenhafte Anhängerin derselben. Eine mit Urtheil unternommene Vereinigung beider Manieren würde eine dritte hervorbringen, die gewis vollkommener wäre, als diese beide. - Und diese Vereinigung hat er offenbar in der letzten ausführlichen Schrift von den chinesischen Gärten zur Absicht.
Wenn jemand, sagt er ferner, kühn genug wäre, einen Versuch zu dieser Vereinigung zu machen, so würde er sich dem Tadel beider Partheien aussetzen, ohne eine oder die andere zu bessern, und sich dadurch selbst nachtheilig werden, ohns der Kunst einen Dienst zu leisten. Dem ohngeachtet aber könne es doch nicht undienlich seyn, das System eines fremden Volks bekannt zu machen. Er könne es mittheilen, ohne seine eigene Gefahr, und wie er hoffe, ohne sonst jemand zu beleidigen. – Diese Wendung des Chambers gibt seine Lage und Absicht nicht undeutlich zu erkennen.
Ein grösserer Beweis ist die ganze Schrift selbst. Wenn man nicht annähme, dass Chambers seine Philosophie, seine Einsichten in die Künste und in das menschliche Herz, seine blühende Einbildungskraft und seinen feinen Geschmack den Chinesern geliehen hätte ; so würde man das, was er von ihren Gärten rühmt, mit so vielen zuverlässigen Nachrichten, die wir von diesem Reich und von dem Geist dieser Nation haben, unmöglich vereinigen können. Er ist freigebig mit Lobsprüchen, worauf sie auf keine Weise Anspruch machen dürfen. Wenn er gleich im Anfang sagt, dass ihre Gärtner nicht allein Botanisten, sondern auch Maler und Philosophen sind ; dass sie eine volkommene Kentnis des menschlichen Herzens und der Künste besitzen, durch welche die stärksten Empfindungen erregt werden können ; so ist dis eine so ungeheure Behauptung, als die nur gefunden werden kan. Auch wenn man hie und da die sinnreichsten Gemälde der Phantasie und die wunderbarsten Feenbezauberungen, die nicht von dem Würklichen abgezogen sind, auch wenn man verschiedene Widersprüche, da Verwirrungen der Einbildungskraft mit bedächtiger Wahl, mit richtigem Gefühl und seiner Beobachtung abwechseln, in der Beschreibung übersieht ; so gibt ihr ganzer Inhalt doch Beweis genug, dass Chambers, indem er die Grundsätze der chinesischen Gartenkunst zu erheben bemühet scheint, mehr bemühet ist, seine eigene vorzutragen.
Wenn übrigens seiner Schrift die historische Wahrheit fehlt, so sol dadurch ihr Werth nicht herabgewürdigt werden. Sie bleibt immer als das Werk eines Mannes von viel Kentnis, Geschmack und Genie schätzbar und in einzelnen Stellen für die Gartenkunst wichtig ; immer eine angenehme Beschreibung eines nicht vorhandenen Gegenstandes, ein schönes Ideal, dem nichts weiter fehlt, als dass es vielleicht nie Würklichkeit haben wird.
Es würde ein seltsames Misverständnis seny, wenn man glaubte, das Daseyn chinesischer Gärten überhaupt zweifelhaft machen wolte. In der That könte nichts seltsamer seyn. Meine Absicht ist blos, zu beweisen, dass China nicht solche Gärten hat, als Chambers beschreibt, als ein algemeines Vorurtheil rühmt, und eine getäuschte Nachahmungssucht nachzubilden versucht. So weit noch die Nachahmung gekommen ist, so weit ist sie auch mehr dem ideal eines Briten, als dem Muster eines Chinesers nachgegangen.
Die Gärten in China können so wenig von dem Geist und dem Geschmack der Nation abweichend seyn, als irgend ein anderer Zweig der schönen Künste. Ausser dem, was einige andere Reisende bemerken, gibt Comte eine Nachricht von den chinesischen Gärten, die mitdem, was wir sonst von der Nation wissen, mehr übereinstimt und der Wahrheit näher zu treten scheint. Die Chineser, sagt er, sind noch nachlässiger in ihren Gärten, als in ihren Wohnungen ; sie haben in diesem Punkt Begriffe, die von den unsrigen sehr verschieden sind. Regelmässige Plätze anzulegen, Blumen zu pflanzen, Alleen und Hecken zu ziehen, würden sie für widersinnig halten. Das öfentliche Wohl erfordert, dass alles besäet sei, und ihr Privatinteresse, das mehr als die gemeine Wohlfahrt sie rührt, erlaubt ihnen nicht, das Angenehme dem Nützlichen vorzuziehen. Ihre Blumen ziehen sie so schlecht, dass man Mühe hat, sie wieder zu kennen. Man erblickt zwar in einigen Gegenden Bäume, die eine grosse Zierde in den Gärten geben würden ; allein sie verstehen nicht die Kunst, sie geschickt zu stellen. Anstatt der Früchte sind diese Bäume fast das ganze Jahr hindurch mit Blüten von lebhaftem Roth und Incarnat bedeckt ; pflanzte man davon Alleen, mit Pomeranzenbäumen untermischt, wie sehr leicht geschehen könte, so würde dies den schönsten Anblick von der Welt geben ; aber weil die Chineser nur selten spatzieren gehen, so sind Alleen nicht nach ihrem Geschmack. Ob sie gleich von der Anordnung und von der Kunst, wahre Verschönerungen anzubringen, nichts verstehen, so machen sie doch in ihren Gärten Aufwand. Sie bauen Grotten, sie führen kleine künstliche Hügel auf, sie bringen ganze Felsstücke dahin, die sie über einander aufhäufen, ohne eine andere Absicht, als blos die Natur nachzuahmen. Wenn sie demnächst so viel Wasser finden, als nöthig ist, um ihren Kohl und ihre übrigen Küchengewächse zu begiessen, so glauben sie, dass sie nichts mehr zu thun übrig haben. Der Kaiser hat Wasserkünste von der Erfindung der Europäer ; Privatpersonen aber begnügen sich mit ihren Teichen und Brunnen. – Die Pracht und der Aufwand, womit die Grossen umgeben sind, sobald sie öffentlich erscheinen, glänzt gar nicht auf ihr häusliches Leben und ihre Lustgärten zurück, worin nichts von den zauberischen Schönheiten, wovon man träumt, aber viel Dürftigkeit und geschmacklose Einfalt herscht, und die näher betrachtet weder etwas zu bewundern noch zu verwundern geben.

Sekundärliteratur
Susanne Müller-Wolff : William Chambers, der als entscheidender Wegbereiter des sentimentalen Landschaftsgartens gilt, blieb mit seiner Dissertation on Oriental gardening nicht ohne Einfluss auf Hirschfeld. Seine emphatisch vorgetragene Forderung an die Gartenkunst, nicht den Verstand, sondern umso intensiver das Gefühl anzusprechen, prägte die Sichtweise Hirschfelss. Dass Chambers zur Erreichung dieses Ziels den chinesischen Gartenstil favorisierte, behagte Hirschfeld weniger. Vor allem Gartenszenen von wildem und fürcherlichem Charakter, wie sie Chambers in seiner Schrift genüsslich ausmalt, stiessen bei Hirschfeld auf deutliche Ablehnung. Seine Schrift ist als Polemik gegen William Chambers aufzufassen : Die historische Herleitung der landschaftlichen Gartenkunst von den chinesischen Gärten wird darin ebenso in Frage gestellt wie die verbreitete Chinamode. Bei der Formulierung seiner Theorie konnte Hirschfeld an eine ästhetische Diskussion anknüpfen, die, angeregt durch die sensualistischen Einflüsse aus England und Frankreich, seit Anfang der 1770er Jahre auch in Deutschland das Naturschöne thematisierte und den sinnlichen Qualitäten der Natur einen eigenen Wirkungsraum zuwies.

Anderson, James. Correspondence for the introduction of Cochineal insects from America : the varnish and tallow trees from China, the discovery and culture of white lac ; the culture of red lac ; and also for the introduction of mulberry trees and silk worms, etc. (Madras : Joseph Martin, 1791).

Godwin, William. Of population [ID D17232].
Quellen :
John Barrow
David Hume
Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste. Description géographique... de la Chine [ID D1819].
Staunton, George Leonard. An historical account of the embassy to the emperor of China [ID D1893].
Chap. VI. : Illustrations from the history of China.
Nothing can be more ludicrous than that part of Mr. Malthus's book, in which, for 698 successive pages, he professes to treat of the checks by which population has actually been kept down to the level of the means of subsistence, whether in ancient or modern times. He acknowledges that in most countries population is at a stand. He takes little notice of the many instances, both in ancient and modern times, in which it has glaringly decreased. And he affirms, upon what evidence it is one of the special objects of this book to examine, that population, if unchecked, would go on, doubling itself every twenty-five years, or in a much shorter period, for ever.
Now, if Mr. Malthus had intended a fair and full examination of this question, he should have set down, in the first place, in each country how many children, in the natural order of things, would be born, and then have proceeded, in the second place, to show how they were cut off. This would have been to have reasoned like a mathematician, like a genuine political economist, and like a philosopher. But the first of these points Mr. Malthus has uniformly omitted. He has therefore appeared to walk over the course at an easy pace, somewhat like Bobadil in the play, calling for 'twenty more, kill them too', simply by directing the keeper of the lists on no account to give entrance to a real combatant.
Since the author of the Essay on Population has omitted this essential part of the consideration, I will endeavour to supply the defect.
The fairest instance on many accounts to begin with, is that of China. In Mr. Malthus's book there is a chapter, entitled 'Of the Checks to Population in China and Japan' : and the author, having spent a number of smooth sentences on the subject, to amount of thirty-four pages, seems well satisfied that he has shewn that the actual state and history of China and Japan serve fully to confirm his opinion, that the population of the world would go on, unchecked, at the rate of doubling itself every twenty-five years or sooner.
China is a country that is supposed to be more fully peopled than any other country in the world. According to Mr. Malthus the population of that empire has been wholly at a stand for the last hundred years : for he quotes Du Halde in the beginning of the last century, to confirm the enumeration of Sir George Staunton at the end of it, and concludes that these two authorities substantially agree with each other. Now China is a country of so uniform a tenour, its manners, its customs, its laws, its division of property, and its policy continuing substantially the same, that, if the population has been at a stand during the last century, there is every reason to suppose it has been at a stand, perhaps for ten centuries. Chine therefore is the most desirable instance that can be taken, of any old country, upon which to try the doctrine of the geometrical ratio.
China has other advantages of no mean importance to the application of our argument. First, that in this empire 'extraordinary encouragements have always been given to marriage. Hume states, that every man in China is married before he is twenty, Mr. Barrow, a recent traveller, who accompanied Lord Macartney in his embassy in 1793, says, 'Public opinion considers celibacy as disgraceful, and a sort of infamy is attached to a man who continues unmarried beyond a certain time of life. As an encouragement to marriage, every male child may be provided for, and receive a stipend from the moment of his birth, by his name being enrolled on the military list. ' He adds, 'In China there are few of those manufacturing cities, which among us produce so great a waste of human life. No great capitals are here employed in any one branch of the arts. In general each labours for himself in his own profession. The still and inanimate kind of life which is led by the women, at the same time ; that it is supposed to render them more prolific, preserves them from accidents that might occasion untimely births'. So that here full scope is afforded to the principle of population.
It is somewhat remarkable that in this country, where the principle of population might reasonably be expected to have been first understood, if not in the exact period of its duplication, at least in its tremendous tendency to excess, no remedies should ever have been thought of by the governors of the country. China is something like the republic of Venice, as it stood for a period of a thousand years, famous for the profoundness of its policy, and the rigidness of its regulations. The great length of time during which its political economy has remained unchanged, implies this. All human things are subject to decay. The law of mutability is so powerful within us, that scarcely any thing is of force enough to control it. But there is somewhat of so vivifying nature in the constitution of China, as to bid defiance to corruption.
Mr. Malthus every where, up and down in the Essay on Population, preaches against the extensive use that we make of the institution of marriage, and seems to think that the great remedy we have for the miseries of mankind as arising from the principle of population, is to be found in discountenancing marriage among the poor. How shallow then are the politicians of this ancient empire, who have uniformly afforded the most 'extraordinary encouragements to marriage' !
Another circumstance is scarcely less miraculous. The exposing of children is a very common practice in China. So far, so good ; this is an obvious way of keeping down population ; though Mr. Malthus seems in some places to doubt its efficacy. But the shallow politicians of China again set themselves against this ; and edict after edict has been published to put an end to it.
The statesman of China have confessedly had the knowledge and experience of several thousand years : but experience is thrown away upon some people. The government is celebrated for the paternal spirit displayed by the head of it towards his subjects : but some fathers, though with no want of love, become the authors of misery to their children by their injudicious conduct.
I proceed however to supply that which, as before stated, Mr. Malthus has omitted, viz. an account how many children, upon the hypothesis of the Essay on Population, would be born, that we may afterwards proceed, with the more perfect preparation, to consider how they are cut off.
Mr. Malthus takes the population of China at 333,000,000. For the sake of a more convenient and compendious arithmetic I will put it down at three hundred millions. Now the doctrine of the Essay on Population is, that 'population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty-five ears'. Therefore in China, after every proper deduction has been made for balancing the number of deaths by an adequate number of births, that so the population may not decrease, there must be an additional number of births, or a sort of superfetation, to the amount of three hundred millions every twenty-five years, to provide for the doubling required by the Essay of Population.
In other countries, we will suppose, population is more or less kept down by the various discouragements to marriage held froth in those countries, and, according to Mr. Malthus, by the late period of life at which marriage frequently takes place. But in China extraordinary encouragements are given to marriage, and every man is married before he is twenty. We may be secure therefore that in that country the full number of children is born, whatever may become of them afterwards.
Hereafter, perhaps before the close of the present century, we shall know something of the population of the United States of America. But, in the mean time, and while, in the sense of genuine statesmen and legislators, we know nothing, Mr. Malthus informs us, and lays it down as the corner-stone of his portentous and calamitous system, that 'the population there has been found to double itself, for above a century and a half successively, in less than twenty-five years', and that this 'has been repeatedly ascertained to be from procreation only'. How many children on an average to a marriage are produces in the United States ? No noe has pretended authentically to inform us. Are they more than in the old countries of Europe ? Probably not. What number of those that are born, die before ten or sixteen years of age ? Of all this we are ignorant.
But whatever be the number of the children born in the United States of America, that die before they arrive at maturity, we know that in China three hundred millions of children more in proportion than in America, die every twenty-five years. This is as certain, as the doctrine of the Essay on Population is true.
The human mind is but ill adapted to grapple with very high numbers ; and I am persuaded that important errors have been committed by theoretical writers in consequence of this infirmity. I will therefore endeavour to conform myself to the limited nature of human faculties, by reducing these numbers. It has already appeared, that three hundred millions of extra-infants must perish in China every twenty-five years, beyond the proportion of the number of infants that would perish in the United States. Now, if we divide this number by twenty-five, we shall find that twelve millions of extra-infants must perish annually in China, to support the doctrine of the Essay on Population.
This surely is a portentous sort of proposition to be built upon a theory, without a single foundation in the records of the country to support it. Mr. Malthus indeed says, that the exposing of children is a very common practice in China, and that about two thousand are annually exposed in the city of Pekin. Alas, what is this to the twelve millions of extra-infants that it is absolutely necessary should perish annually in that country ? What a scene of devastation does Mr. Malthus's doctrine lead us to see in China ! They must lie on heaps, like what we read of human bodies in the plague of Marseilles. As fast as a certain number of these infants waste away in the streets, an equal number supplies their place, so that the scene of putrescence and the noisomeness of the stench are made perpetual. Does any traveller relate that, he was witnessed this ? – And all this time the legislators of the country know nothing of the matter, and go on from century to century, giving extraordinary encouragements to marriage, and prohibiting the exposing of children.
But all this has no existence but in Mr. Malthus's book. It must be true, because in the United States 'the population has been found to double itself, for above a century and a half successively, in less than twenty-five years, and that from procreation only'. I shall hereafter proceed to consider the population of America. I have no doubt that one of these propositions is as true as the other.
I am well aware that we know nothing of the population of China, and almost as little of the of the United States. I have therefore taken these statements almost entirely from M. Malthus himself. It is for him and his disciples to explain and to reconcile them.
From all that has been said however it is perfectly clear, that the statesman and legislators of China, who have proceeded with a steady, and perhaps I may add an enlightened, attention to the subject for centuries, not only have no suspicion of the main principles taught in the Essay on Population, but are deeply impressed with the persuasion that, without encouragement and care to prevent it, the numbers of the human species have a perpetual tendency to decline.
Upon the whole therefore it is as certain, as any thing can be, from the sewing of Mr. Malthus himself, that the empire of China has never been subject to the operation of the geometrical ratio.

Arthur Schopenhauer
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Schulz, Christian. Aphorismen, oder Sentenzen des Konfuz [ID D17673].
Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Le livre des récompenses et des peines [ID D1937].
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Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Foe koue ki ou relation des royaumes bouddhiques [ID D2020].
Lao-tseu. Tao-te-king. Trad. de Stanislas Julien [ID D2060].
Tchao-chi-kou-eul, ou l'Orphelin de la Chine. Transl. de Stanislas Julien [ID D2005].
Davis, John Francis. The Chinese : a general description of the empire of China and its habitants [ID D2017].
Gützlaff, Karl. Gützlaff's Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf den Frieden von Nankin [ID D832].
Neumann, Karl Friedrich. Natur- und Religionsphilosophie der Chinesen, nach dem Werke des chinesischen Weltweisen Tschuhi [Zhu Xi] [ID D1201].
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Staunton, George Thomas. An inquiry into the proper mode of rendering the word 'God' [ID D17674].
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Julien, Stanislas. Meng tseu vel Mencium inter Sinenses philosophos, ingenio, doctrina, nominisque claritate Confucio proximum [ID D1976].
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Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Forschungen im Gebiete der älteren religiösen, politischen und literärischen Sidlungsgeschichte der Völker Mittel-Asiens [ID D8070].
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Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über die sogenannte dritte Welt der Buddhaisten. In : Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 2 (1834).
Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über Lamaismus und die Bedeutungslosigkeit dieses Namens. In : Bulletin scientifique / Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 1 (1837).
Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über das Mahâyâna und Pradschnâ-pâramitâ der Bauddhen. In : Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg ; 4 (1837).
Schmidt, Isaak Jakob. Über die Verwandtschaft der gnostisch-theosophischen Lehren mit den Religionssystemen des Orients, vorzüglich dem Buddhaismus [ID D1871].
Schiefner, Franz Anton von. Über die Verschlechterungsperioden der Menschheit nach buddhistischer Anschaungsweise. In : Mélanges asiatiques tirés du Bulletin historico philologico de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg ; t. 1 (1851).
Schiefner, Franz Anton von. Das buddhistische Sutra der zwei und vierzig Sätze. Aus dem Tibetischen übers. In : Mélanges asiatiques tirés du Bulletin historico philologico de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg ; t. 1 (1851).
Turner, Samuel. Samuel Turner’s Gesandtschaftsreise an den Hof des Teshoo Lama [ID D1898].
Bochinger, Johann Jakob. La vie contemplative, ascétique et monastique chez les indous et chez les peuples bouddhistes. [ID D17696].
Burnouf, Eugène (1801-1852). Introduction à l’histoire du buddhisme indien. T. 1. (Paris : Imprimerie royale, 1844).
Foucaux, Ph.Ed. (1847-1848). Rgy tch’er rol pa ; ou Développement des jeux, contenant l’histoire du Bouddha Cakya-Mouni. Trad. Sur la version tibétaine du Bkah hgyour, et revu sur l’original sanscrit (Lalitavistara). Vol. 1-2. (Paris : L’imprimerie royale, 1847-1848).
Ma, Shaoyun ; Sheng, Shengzu. Wei Zang tu shi : Description du Tibet. Trad. du chinois en Russe par Bitchourin. [Übers. von Klaproth] [ID D11524].
Klaproth, Julius von. Fragmens bouddhiques [ID D7510].
Spiegel, Fr[iedrich] (1820-1905). Liber de officiis sacerdotum buddhicorum. (Bonnae ad Rhenum : Impensis H.B. Koenig, 1841).
Spiegel, Fr[iedrich]. Anecdota pâlica ; nach den Handschriften der Königl. Bibliothek in Copenhagen. (Leipzig : W. Engelmann, 1845).
Buchanan-Hamilton, Francis. On the religion and literature of the Burman. I : Asiatic researches ; 6 (1799).
Csoma de Körös, Alexandre. Analysis of the Kanjur and an abstract of the contents of the Tanjur. In : Asiatic researches ; 20 (1836-39).
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Turnour, George (1799-1843). The first twenty chapters of the Mahawanso : and a prefatory essay on Pali buddhistical literature ; originally pub. As an introduction to the above mentioned portion of the Mahawanso and to the epitome of the history of Ceylon, and the historical inscriptions, printed in the Ceylon almanacs of 1833 and 1834. (Ceyon : Cotta Church Mission Press, 1836).
Upham, Edward (1776-1834) [et al.]. The Mahávansi, the Rájá-ratnácari, and the Rájã-vali : forming the sacred and historical books of Ceylon ; also, a collection of tracts illustrative of the doctrines and literature of buddhism. (London : Parbury, Allen and Co., 1833).
Upham, Edward. The history and doctrine of buddhism ; popularly illustrated. With notices of the Kappooism, or demon worship, and of the Bali, or planetary incantations, of Ceylon. With forty-three lithographic prints from original Singhalese designs. (London : R. Ackermann, 1829).
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Sekundärliteratur
Adrian Hsia : Schopenhauer is the first European thinker who went beyond the borders of the Holy Bible and integrated Indian culture into his philosophical system, thereby also touching cultural China. He freely professed his indebtedness to ‘divine’ Plato, 'incredible' Kant, and the 'holy' Upanishads for the formation of his own philosophy. Each one of us is the product of a certain culture, we even speak its language. However, we can expand out cultural self to include other elements. Schopenhauer did this, and this act does not make him less European or German. However, it does make him less fundamentalistic, because his Eurocentrism includes old Indian wisdom. Consequently, China is automatically placed closer to the centre, particularly because Buddhism, which originated in India, is also recognized as one of the three Chinese religions. Even without taking the books on Buddhism into consideration, Schopenhauer had read a respectable number of books on Chinese culture. In his library, he even had the first Chinese dictionary in English (Morrison, Robert. A dictionary of the Chinese language [ID D1934]). He wrote notes in it. For example, after checking the dates of Buddha and Confucius, he notes that the latter is older that the 'Fo-Lehre' (Buddhist teaching). He was also interested in Morrison’s statement that by examining the meaning of 'Motion and Rest' he came to the conclusion that the Chinese did not have the notion of ‘deity’. Schopenhauer also possessed Confucian canons in several translated languages: the four books of Confucianism (Pauthier, Jean-Pierre Guillaume. Les livres sacrés de l'Orient [ID D2040]) ; a separate collection of his sayings (Schulz, Christian. Aphorismen, oder Sentenzen des Konfuz [ID D17673]) ; a 'Chi-king' (Shi jing) and a 'Y-King' (Yi jing) in Latin, an interpretation of the same Y-King (Yi jing) and the Latin translation of Mengzi. He also read at least four books in French on and about Taoism, two translations by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat (Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Le livre des récompenses et des peines [ID D1937] and Stanislas Julien (Lao-tseu. Tao-te-king : le livre de la voie et de la vertu [ID D2060]) respectively, and two 'mémoires' on Laozi and Tao, one by Abel-Rémusat (Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. Mémoire sur la vie et les opinions de Lao-tseu [ID D11899]) and the other translated by Jean-Pierre-Guillaume Pauthier (Mémoire sur l'origine et la propagation de la doctrine de tao, fondée par Lao-tseu [ID D6264]. Thus Schopenhauer was quite well equipped to speak of the principles of Confucianism and Laozis Dao de jing. He also read the two Chinese literary works in translation, namely Tchao-chi-kou-eul, ou l'Orphelin de la Chine. Transl. by Stanislas Julien [ID D2005], a French and a German translation of Hao jiu zhuan. Last, but not least, Schopenhauer also read a general description of China (Davis, John Francis. The Chinese : a general description of the empire of China and its inhabitants [ID D2017]). In addition to the above books, we must also add Karl Friedrich August Gützlaff's History of the Chinese empire in German (Gützlaff, Karl. Gützlaff's Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf den Frieden von Nankin [ID D832]), from which Schopenhauer quoted in his short essay titled 'Sinologie'. The essay is a curious piece of work. We shall analyse it under three aspects. In the same manner as Schopenhauer was critical of the vanity of the Anglican missionaries to convert the Hindus, who, in his opinion, were more knowledgeable than any other people in ontological matters, he criticised the Catholic Church, including the much praised Jesuits, of trying to converting an ancient culture to a relatively new religion. In their fervour, they only thought of finding traces of their religion in the ancient culture of China, thereby ignoring completely the difference between the Chinese and Christian civilisation. The European culture, being derived from Judaism, is theistic, while the three Chinese religions (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism), are neither monotheistic nor polytheistic. In this connection, we know that Schopenhauer did not think the terms ‘atheism’ and ‘pantheism’ are logical and admissible, because both terms presupposes the existence of God.
We know that Schopenhauer began his reading on Indian philosophy, through the influence of Friedrich Majer, in 1813/14, and quite a respectable number of books on Brahmanism and Buddhism can be found in his personal library. Last, not least, his essay has a long footnote providing the most important publications on Buddhism of his time. However, the fact that he thought, like the earlier German philosophers such as Hegel, Herder, and Kant, that Tibet was the capital of the 'Buddhaistischen Kirche' indicates the incompleteness of the knowledge at that time. On Taoism, there was even scantier information. Even though Schopenhauer had two books on Laozi by Abel-Rémusat, it is not established when he had read them. It has been established that he had read Stanislas Julien’s superior translation immediately after its publication in 1842. He even used a sentence from the book to serve as motto to the 'Supplements to the Fourth Book' of his Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. The motto, which was taken from Julien's comments, reads : "Tout les hommes désirent uniquement de se délivrer de la mort : ils ne savent pas se délivrer de la vie". Schopenhauer also possessed the book by Jean-Pierre-Guillaume Panthier, comparing Laozi's teaching with Upanishads and concluding that they are compatible. Because Schopenhauer's approach to Asia began with Hinduism and Buddhism, we can assume that he found his way to Taoism via the Indian philosophy.
Nevertheless, Schopenhauer was European, it would be more natural for him to view the world from the Christian perspective. However, because of his perception of the historical world as a place of suffering of such an intense kind which made the invention of hell superfluous, he had a natural inclination towards India's philosophy of suffering. With such a non-European connection, his perspective became less Europe-centred. Already in the first part of his major work, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, he mentioned the Chinese philosophy of Y-King [Yi jing] and its accompanying antipodes Yin and Yang with Pythagorian theory in one breath. It constitutes the third of the four objective systems. He also compared the same antipodes with the natural philosophy of Schelling and his school who pointed out the polarity was a fundamental law of 'fast aller Erscheinungung der Natur'. Schelling was, of course, only 13 years older than Schopenhauer, while Yi jing is ancient. The highest praise was reserved for the Vedas as the fruit of the highest wisdom which is crystalized in the maxim: 'tat twam asi'. The essence of this formula Schopenhauer equates with Immanuel Kant’s postulate of practical reason. The truth has, of course, to be disguised as myth, in this case the transmigration with the teaching of nirvana in which there are no 'Geburt, Alter, Krankheit und Tod'. This myth of nirvana came to Greece from India or Egypt and were received with great admiration by Pythagoras and Plato. This does not contradict his other conviction, that Buddhism has the highest 'Gehalt an Wahrheit' under the 'Schleier der Allegorie'. It was not without satisfaction that he concluded that his teaching coincides with that of Buddhism without being influenced by it. Because when the first volume of his Welt als Wille und Vorstellung was published in 1818, there were hardly any publication on Buddhism except a few articles in the Asiatic Researches on the Burmese branch of Buddhism. Buddhism was, according to Schopenhauer, the oldest, largest, and truest religion because it teaches that the existence of the world is a result of our sins.
Schopenhauer had moved his centre to India, it could be called an Indian-centred Eurocentrism, if such a construct is possible at all. From his centre, he built bridges both to Christianity and to China. However, he was aware that the Indology was still at its beginning, and he compared the Sanscrit scholars in Europe to high school students learning Greek. The knowledge of Chinese among the scholars was ever more inadequate, and he was particularly unhappy with Abel-Rémusat's work. Using the works he considered more reliable, some of which we have seen above, he gives us a concise picture of China as he understood it. The original cult of the Chinese, according to Schopenhauer, was devoted to the blue sky in winter and the earth in summer, besides a number of possible natural phenomena of which each is controlled by a genius. However, he correctly noticed that benefactors to the Chinese people could be deified. Then there was also the private cult of one's own ancestors. There are also three public religions. The first he identified as 'Taossee', i.e. religious Taoism, founded by Laozi, which he characterized as the 'Lehre von der Vernunft', the inner world order or innate principle of all things. Schopenhauer's source was Stanilas Julien's translation of Dao de jing. With Julien, he opined that the teaching of Tao, which is given as the way to salvation, to redemption of the world and its miseries, agrees with that of Buddhism. Schopenhauer correctly notes that the priests and the religion of Taoism were not popular and respected. What he did not know was that there was a philosophical school of Taoism as well which, lacking all religious aspects, constitutes the metaphysical structure of the Chinese culture. As a matter of fact, this Chinese metaphysics can be used as a bridge to approach his own philosophy of 'Vorstellung' and 'Wille' which we shall attempt to demonstrate later on. The second Chinese teaching is, of course, Confucianism, which he characterized as a political moral philosophy without any metaphysics. He found this quite boring. Finally, there was Buddhism, Schopenhauer’s favourite. Here he became eloquent and gave all kind of information. He was full of praise and he was especially impressed by the fact that Buddhism prospered without support from the state. He also appreciated the peaceful co-existence of all three teachings, influencing and permeating each other. This characteristic is evident in the saying that the three teachings are really one. These three religions were neither monotheistic, nor polytheistic. At least, Schopenhauer opined, Buddhism was also not pantheistic. Incidentally, neither was Confucianism or Taoism. The above was all Schopenhauer said about the Chinese culture. He was apparently only interested in its religious part. His knowledge of religious Taoism was minimal, he was not interested in the teaching of the Confucian school, although unknowingly, he shared one of its principles, namely, 'zhen ming', i. e. to call a theory by nothing but its proper designation. Schopenhauer demand of 'zhen ming' was a outburst against those contemporary philosophers whom he identified as philosophical jokers who discussed atheism, pantheism, and cosmology in reference to Spinoza.
The enthusiasm of Schopenhauer for 'Tchu-Fu-Tse' knew no bounds, he thought the Chinese philosopher expressed exactly the ideas which he himself presented in Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Immediately he began to profess his innocence that he did not and could not have plagiarised from 'Tchu-Fu-Tse' because the article he quoted was published eight years after his Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. He used a German article on the same Chinese philosopher to check the correctness of the English one and came to the conclusion that one confirmed the accuracy of the other, even though he thought the German Sinologist did not understand the Chinese text too well. Thus his essay on Sinology ends with a dissatisfactory note and the hope that some Englishmen would publish more of the above.
Even though Schopenhauer never took up the subject again, we will attempt to interpret his Welt als Wille und Vorstellung from a Chinese perspective, but not using 'Tchu-Fu-Tse', but Taoist metaphysics which was also, at least partially, the source of the former.

Great Britain. House of Commons. Return to an address / Return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons. (London : House of Commons, 1823-1907).

1823
East and West India trade. Return to an order of the Honourable House of Commons dated the 10th of February 1823 ; for an account of the tonnage entered outwards for the East Indies and China, in each year from 1793 to 1822, inclusive ; also a similar account of the tonnage entered inwards from the East Indies and China, during the same period.

1831
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1833
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1833
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1833
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1833
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1833
Further returns to an order of the Honourable House of Commons, dated 3 April 1833 ; --for, a continuation to the latest period to which they can be made up, of all accounts relating to the trade of India and China, and to the finances of India, which were presented to This House, by His Majesty's command, in the years 1829 and 1830 ; and also, of all such other accounts relating to the same matters as have been ordered by This House during the last two years : ordered, by The House of Commons, to be printed, 25 June 1833.

1839
Melvill, James C. East India Company : return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 24 June 1839;--for, accounts of all monies supplied from the revenues of India since the return made to the order of The House of the 12th day of December 1837, towards the payments of expenses in England, chargeable on those revenues, particularizing, as before, monthly and annually: 1.--The amount of bills drawn by the Court of Directors on the several governments of India, in separate accounts of each Presidency, for monies paid into the London treasury of the East India Company, with the rates of exchange at which such bills were issued. 2.--The amount of remittances, in separate accounts, made by the several governments of India, and by the East India Company's agents in China, to the Court of Directors; specifying the dates of remittances as advised in the registers received from India, and the dates when the same were received into the London treasury; whether the due payment of those remittances were protected by the hypothecation of goods, or by any other security, with the rates of exchange at which such remittances were made. 3.--Amount of bills drawn by the East India Company's agents in China on the several governments of India, with the rates of exchange at which such bills were issued at Canton;--also, an account of remittances received from India or China, since the last return, in silk, or any other description of goods; specifying the invoice cost in Indian currency and in British sterling money; with a statement, if sold, of the net proceeds realized in London:--also, an account of any remittances received into the London treasury of the East India Company, in repayment of advances made in India on account of Her Majesty's government, and also made applicable towards the payment of expenses in England chargeable on the revenues of India

1840
China : further return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1840 : for, copies of all communications between the Board of Treasury, or the India Board, or any other public department, and the parties or their agents who are holders of certificates or bills granted by the Chief Superintendent at Canton for opium surrendered to the Chinese authorities.

1840
China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1840 : --for, copies of all communications between the Board of Treasury, or the India Board, or any other public department, and the parties or their agents who are holders of certificates or bills granted by the chief superintendent at Canton for opium surrendered to the Chinese authorities : together with an account of the number of such bills or certificates, and of the amount in sterling value which they represent.

1840
China : further return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1840 : --for, copies of all communications between the Board of Treasury, or the India Board, or any other public department, and the parties or their agents who are holders of certificates or bills granted by the Chief Superintendent at Canton for opium surrendered to the Chinese authorities.

1840
Melvill, J.C. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 9 April 1840, for, copies of any correspondence between Her Majesty's Government and the East India Company, showing the arrangement entered into with the East India Company for paying the expense of the armament now preparing in India for service in China

1841
China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 30 May 1853, for, return of property captured or detained by the combined forces in China, from the 25th day of August 1841, showing the actual amount of money in British sterling received, and in what manner disposed of, with the amount paid as batta, or on any other account, to the naval and military forces employed during the service.

1842
Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 6 June 1842 ; -- for, return of all monies repaid by Her Majesty's Government to the East India Company, on account of the war in China, since the commencement of the war until the present time.

1843
Sycee silver : return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 3 February 1843 ; -- for, returns of the quantity of sycee silver and other silver imported from China in Her Majesty's Ship Conway ; ... also, account of the loss or gain to the state by sending the silver to the mint instead of selling it in the market as it arrived.

1846
Parker, John. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 18 June 1846, for an account of sums received from the Chinese Government, under the Treaty of Nankin, for the payment of debts due by Chinese merchants to British subjects : of the debts paid therefrom to British subjects, and of the balance still remaining in the hands of the Government : also, of debts claimed by British subjects and not paid, with the reasons for their being disallowed, and whether these reasons were suggested by the British or by the Chinese authorities.

1846
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 29 January 1846 ; -- for a "return of the annual receipt and expenditure of the Colony of Hong Kong, made up to the latest period for which accounts have been received, showing the gross receipts from the various branches of revenue, under their different heads ; distinguishing the amounts levied in the Colony from Parliamentary Grants, and stating the expenditure under its various branches."

1847
Martin, Robert Montgomyer. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 2 July 1847 ; for, copy of correspondence of Mr. Montgomery Martin with the Secretary of State for the colonies, relating to this resignation of the Office of Treasurer of Hong Kong.

1847
Martin, Robert Montgomery. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 11 May 1847 ; -- for, copy of a memorandum by Robert Montgomery Martin, member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, on the records of the Council, referring to the mistake in date of dissent on opium, of the 26th day of November 1844 ; and of the observations of Governor Davis thereon, dated the 12th day of February 1845."-- (in continuation of paper ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 4 May 1847, no. 347.).

1853
Melvill, James Cosmo. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 30 May 1853 ; -- for, return "of property captured or detained by the combined forces in China, from the 25th day of August 1841, showing the actual amount of money in British sterling received, and in what manner disposed of ; with the amount paid as batta, or on any other account, to the naval and military forces employed during the service."

1854
Hogg, James Weir. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 5 May 1854 ; for, "Copies of the correspondence between Her Majesty's Government, or any department of it, or the Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India, and the Court of Directors of the East India Company, regarding the settlement of the balance of expenditure by the Government of India, on account of the expedition to China."

1857
Cheong, Alum. Hong Kong : return to an address of the Honourable the House of commons, dated 1 July 1857 : for "Copies of, or extracts from, any papers connected with the confinement of Chinese prisoners at Hong Kong, and with the trial of a baker and others on the charge of poisoning".

1857
Martin, Robert Montgomery. Hong Kong : return of two addresses of the honourable the House of Commons dated respectively 13 and 27 February 1857 ; --for, (address, 13 February 1857) "copies of 'report on Hong Kong ; ' 'Report on Chusan ; ' and 'Minute on the British position and prospects in China' by Mr. R. Montgomery Martin, when treasurer to the Queen at Hong Kong, and a memebr of her majesty's legislative council in China.

1857
Bowring, John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 14 May 1857 ; for, "Copies or extracts of correspondence between Governor Sir John Bowring and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, relative to the re-construction of the Legislative Council of the Colony of Hong Kong, in the years 1855 and 1856."

1857
Taunton, Henry Labouchere. Chinese emigrants : return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 23 February 1857 ; for "Copies of any recent communications to or from the Foreign Office, Colonial Office, Board of Trade, and any other Department of Her Majesty's Government, on the subject of mortality on board the "Duke of Portland" or any other British ships carrying emigrants from China."

1857
Hong Kong : return to two addresses of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated respectively 13 and 27 February 1857--for (Address, 13 February 1857), "Copies of 'Report on Hong Kong: 'Report on Chusan' ; and 'Minute on the British position and prospects in China'.

1857
Cheong, Alum. Hong Kong : return to and address of the Honourable the House of commons, dated 1 July 1857 : for "Copies of, or extracts from, any papers connected with the confinement of Chinese prisoners at Hong Kong, and with the trial of a baker and others on the charge of poisoning".

1857
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 6 March 1857 ; -- for "Copies of any memorials received by Viscount Palmerston, in 1847 and 1848, from the East India and China Association of Liverpool, together with the answers returned thereto."

1857
Bowring, John. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 15 June 1857 ; -- for, "Copies, or extracts of any correspondence with Sir John Bowring on the subject of his application for a vote from Parliament to defray the expense of measures of precaution and defence at Hong Kong, required by the state of affairs in China."

1857
China surveys : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 11 June 1857, for, a return of the respective dates of transmission to the Admiralty of any official surveys that may have been made in the Chinese waters, between Macao and Hong Kong, since the cession of that island to Her Majesty, and, similar return as to official surveys of all other portions of the Chinese coast.

1859
India and China (exports and imports) : return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 March 1859.

1859
Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 March 1859 ; -for, 'each year since 1813, of the value, computed or declared, of the manufactures and produce, -1. exported from the United Kingdom to India and to China and Hong Kong. 2. imported into the United Kingdom from India and from China and Hong Kong, specifying the quantities of cotton from India, and tea and silk. 3. exported from India to China and Hong Kong. 4. inported into India from China and Hong Kong."

1860
Pennell, C.H. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 14 February 1860, for, copies of letter from the Secretary to the Admiralty, no. 336, dated the 9th day of August 1858, respecting the affairs in China, enclosing letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine to the Earl of Clarendon, no. 91, dated Her Majesty's Ships Furious, Gulf of Pechele, the 23d day of April 1858 : of letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, no. 101, dated Her Majesty's Ship Furious, Gulf of Pechele, the 29th day of April 1858, to the Earl of Clarendon : of letter from Sir Michael Seymour, acknowledging receipt of same, no. 326, dated Her Majesty's Ship Calcutta, Hong Kong, the 27th day of September 1858, with its enclosures, viz., letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine to Sir Michael Seymour, dated Her Majesty's Ship Furious, the 21st day of May 1858, and letter from the Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, dated Tiensin, the 6th day of July 1858 : and, of letters from the Secretary to the Admiralty to Sir Michael Seymour, no. 542, dated the 23d day of November 1858, from the Secretary to the Admiralty, to E. Hammond, Esq., dated Admiralty, the 23d day of November.

1860
James, Edwin John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 6 March 1860 ; -- for, copies of all correspondence, or other papers, on the following subjects, or any of them:-- the resignation of the justiceship of the peace for Hong Kong by Mr. Thomas Chisholm Anstey, sent in to the local government on the 13th day of May 1858 ; his suspension, on the 7th day of August 1858, from the attorney generalship of the Colony of Hong Kong, and from the Office of Counsel to the Superintendency of Trade in China ; the case of The Queen v. Tarrant for libel, tried at the November sessions (1858) of the Hong Kong Supreme Court (Criminal Side) ; the charge of alleged complicity of Mr. Caldwell, J.P. and Protector of Chinese at Hong Kong, with Hong Kong pirates ; the charges made against the Acting Colonial Secretary (Dr. Bridges) with reference to the foregoing subjects, and also the opium farm monopoly ; the proceedings against Mr. May, Superintendent of Police at Hong Kong, Mr. Tarrant, Registrar of Deeds there, and the police court interpreter Tong Akou, and the dismissal of the police court interpreter Assam, for having severally given evidence against the said parties, or any of them ; and, the imperial regulations (if any) by which, the several suspensions or removals before mentioned were authorised.

1860
Kinnaird, Arthur. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 8 August 1859 ; -- for, "copies of the ordinance (no. 2, of 1858) passed by the Hong Kong Legislative Council, 'for licensing and regulating the sale of prepared opium, ' specifying the date of its confirmation by Her Majesty's Government:" "of the grants thereunder made of the sole privilege of preparing opium and selling the same within Hong Kong:" "of the report and minutes of a committee of the said Council upon certain circumstances connected with the first grant of such privilege, and the minute of council adopting such report:" "and, of all correspondence relating to the matters aforesaid."

1862
Lewis, George Cornewall. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 11 March 1862 ; -- for, "returns of the number and descriptions of troops of all arms at the different stations in China, on hte 1st day of March, annually, for the last five years, and on the date of the last despatches from China:" "and of the approximate annual cost of the troops remaining in China at the date of the last despatches."

1862
Lewis, Cornewall George. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 16 May 1862 ; -- for, "Returns of the numbers of troops of Her Majesty's service now stationed in China, giving in detail the numbers of officers and men of each rank and service, or civilians connected with such service, receiveing British or colonial pay:" "stating whether they receive Indian or other allowances, and from what fund they are paid:" "Similar return for Her Majesty's Indian service:" "and, similar return for any irregular or local corps that may be paid by Great Britain."

1862
Peel, Fredrick. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 27 March 1862 ; -- for, an account "showing the several votes of credit in the years 1859-60, 1860-1, and 1861-2, on account of the China war:" "Also, an account of the services to which the said votes of credit have been applied ; the amount applied in each year to each service ; the total amount applied to each service to 31 March 1862 ; and the balance then remaining outstanding:" "And, a statement of the amount of all claims, so far as is known, that have been made on the government by or on the part of the Indian Government or others, on account of services during the China war ; showing, also, the amount paid or admitted, and the amount still unsettled."

1862
Rosmead, Hercules Robinson. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 16 June 1862 ; -- for, "copies of a despatch from the Governor of Hong Kong, dated the 16th day of December 1861, transmitting copy of the minutes of inquiry into civil service abuses before the Executive Council of that colony, and of the answer returned to that despatch:" "and, of correspondence with Mr. Chisholm Anstey on the subject."

1863
China : return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 4 June 1863.
Verlag: [London] : House of Commons, 1863 : for, copy of the Order in Council authorising the enlistment of officers and men, and the equipment and fitting-out of vessels of war for the service of the Emperor of China. (London : House of Commons., 1863).

1863
Peel, Frederick. China indemnity : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 27 July 1863., for, a statement of the sums received on account of the China indemnity, under the Treaty of Pekin, of the 24th day of October 1860, made up to the latest date of which accounts have been received from China, and of the balance which then remained unpaid.

1863
Romilly, Edward ; Arbuthnot, Henry. China : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 2 July 1863, for, a return in detail, of the appropriation of the sum of dollars 456,774.39 balance remaining in the Treasury from the sum of 3,000,000 of dollars received from the Chinese Government under the Treaty of Nankin, in payment of the debts due by Chinese merchants to British subjects.

1863
Peel, Fredrick. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 3 March 1863 ; -- for, an "account showing the several votes of credit in the years 1859-60, 1860-1, and 1861-2, on account of the last China war, and the application thereof, to the latest date to which the same can be prepared:" "and, statement of the amount of all claims made by the Indian Department for expenses on account of the last China war, the amount thereof repaid out of the vote of credit, and the balance remaining unsettled at the same date."

1865
Prideaux, Fras W. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 25 July 1864;-for, 'return of opium exported to China from Central India via Bombay since the year 1830.

1865
Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 21 February 1865, for : copy of correspondence and papers relating to the establishment of telegraphic communication between India, Singapore, China and Australia, since the 5th day of April 1864 (in continuation of Papers communicated last session).

1866
Briggs, John Henry. Chinese pirates : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 April 1866, for, return of the number of Chinese pirate vessels captured, or burnt, or otherwise destroyed by Her Majesty's vessels of war in the China Seas during the command of Admiral King : and, copy of report as to how the captured vessels and property were disposed of, and what amount of prize money was shared by the respective captors, stating the number of pirates given up to the British authorities at Hong Kong, and to the Chinese authorities.

1866
Mortality in troops (China and Japan) : return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 8 February 1866 : for, copy of all correspondence which has taken taken [sic] place relative to the sickness and mortality in the 2d Battalion of the 9th Regiment and 2d Battalion of the 11th Regiment in China and Japan.

1866
Sykes, Colonel ; Forster, W.E. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 8 February 1866 ; -- for, "copy or extracts of all correspondence in the Colonial Office respecting the rendition by the Acting Governor of Hong Kong, Mr. Mercer, to the Chinese authorities at Canton, of a person described in the public journals as the Mo-Wong, and his execution."

1866
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 22 March 1866 ; -- for, a "detailed statement of all monies expended upon fortifications, military storehouses and buildings, and upon barracks, at Hong Kong and Kowloon, and of monies paid for hire of godowns or other temporary buildings up to the 31st day of December 1865 (in continuation of report, no. 93)."

1866
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 13 February 1866 ; -- for, return showing the accommodation for the troops of all arms at Hong Kong and Kowloon, at the time of the arrival of the 2d Battalion, 9th Regiment, and 2d Battalion, 11th Regiment ; specifying the nature of the accommodation and number of cubic feet allowed per man.

1866
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 13 February 1866 ; -- for, "return of the mean annual strength, total annual sickness, mortality, and invaliding of the troops of each arm, officers and men, at Hong Kong, from the year 1850 to 1865, both inclusive:" "and, of the number of deaths annually on the voyage to England of the troops invalided,"

1866
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 21 February 1866 ; -- for, a "detailed statement of all monies expended upon fortifications, military storehouses and buildings, and upon barracks, at Hong Kong and Kowloon, and of monies paid for hire of godowns or other temporary buildings from 1861 to 1865, both years inclusive."

1866
Peel, Frederick ; Lugard, Edward. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 10 April 1866 ; -- for, "copy of letter, dated Treasury Chambers, 17 September 1862, signed by Mr. Peel, and addressed to Sir Edward Lugard, K.C.B., War Office, relative to the garrison of Hong Kong."

1867
Mail services (India and China). Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 19 November 1867 ; --for, copy "of further correspondence relating to the conveyance of mails to India and China (in continuation of parliamentary paper, no. 405, of session 1867)."

1868
Sclater-Booth, G. ; Crossman, W. China and Japan : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 4 June 1868, for, copy of reports from Major Crossman and correspondence respecting the legation and consular buildings in China and Japan.
Verlag: [London] : House of Commons, 1868.

1868
Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 5 May 1868, for : copy of correspondence and papers relating to the establishment of telegraphic communication between India, Singapore, China and Australia, since the 21st day of February 1865 (in continuation of Papers communicated the Session of 1865).

1868
Macdonnell, Richard Graves. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 19 May 1868 ; for, "copies of memorial to the Governor of Hong Kong from the Chief Justice of Hong Kong and the Honourable Mr. Whittall on coolie emigration ; " "and, of reply of the Governor thereto."

1869
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 23 February 1869 ; -- for, "copies of all correspondence which commenced about October 1867 between Major General Guy, C.B., then in command of Her Majesty's troops in China and Japan, and the War Office, relative to the scale of consolidated allowances promulgated in 1866, for the officers serving in China and Japan ; " "and, of the statement handed by the officer commanding the troops in Japan in October 1867 to the Major General at his inspection of the 9th Regiment of Infantry relating to it."

1869
Kaye, J.W. Return to an address of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 6 August 1869;-for, copy of papers relating to the route of captain W.C. McLeod from Moulmein to the frontiers of China, and to the route of Dr. Richardson on his fourth mission to the Shan provinces of Burmah, or extracts from the same.

1869
Sykes, Colonel ; Monsell, William. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 29 July 1869 ; -- for, "copy of all correspondence, memorials, replies to memorials, and papers relating to the ordinances of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, whereby a government farm of gambling houses has been created in that colony, or relating to the revenue derived or to be derived from the same, and the appropriation of such revenue."

1870
China, etc. (Legation buildings) : Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons dated 22 july 1870, for Copy of memorandum showing details of estimate for legation and consular buildings in China and Japan.

1871
Hugessen, Edward ; Knatchbull-Hugessen, Brabourne ; Bowring, John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 31 March 1871 ; -- for, "copy of further correspondence, memorials, replies to memorials, and despatches or extracts relating to the gambling houses licence system in Hong Kong (in continuation of parliamentay paper, no. 409, of session 1868-9)."

1873
Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 24 april 1873 : - for, copy of memorial of the Association of the Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom to the right honourable William Ewart Gladstone ... and of the appendix and maps attached to the same. Rangoon and Western China, no. 28-I., of Session 1867-8, and no. 192, of session 1868.

1873
Gladstone, W.E. Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 24 april 1873 ; -- for, copy "of memorial of the Association of the Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom to the right honourable William Ewart Gladstone, M.P., First Lord of Her Majesty's Treasury, dated the 17th day of February 1873 ; and of the appendix and maps attached to the same, the maps to be in outline only (in continuation of parliamentary papers, 'Rangoon and Western China, ' no. 28-I., of session 1867-8, and no. 192, of session 1868)."

1873
Duddell, George. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 20 June 1872 ; -- for, copy "of correspondence between Mr. George Duddell, late of Hong Kong (and his legal advisers), and the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, relative to his claim for compensation out of the unapplied balance of the Chinese indemnity fund, in respect of losses sustained by him at the hands of the Chinese authorities, whilst in fulfilment of contracts with the government for the supply of Her Majesty's forces."

1874
Post office (East India, China and Japan mails contract) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 1 August 1874 ; - for, copy "of a contract, dated the 1st day of August 1874, between the Postmaster General and the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company for the conveyance of the East India, China, and Japan mails, together with copy of a Treasury minute, dated the 1st day of August 1874, thereon: and copy of a memorandum by the Postmaster General relating thereto."

1879
Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 13 February 1879 ; - for, copy "of a contract dated the 7th day of February 1879, entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, for the conveyance of the mails between this country and India and China ; together with a copy of a Treasury minute, dated the 12th day of February 1879, thereto."

1879
Selwin-Ibbetson, Henry. Return to an order of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 13 February 1879;-for, copy "of contract dated the 7th day of February 1879, entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, for the Conveyance of the Mails between this country and India and China; together with copy of a Treasury Minute, dated the 12th day of February 1879, thereon"

1880
Pope-Hennessy, John. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated February 1880, for, Copy of Report of the Commissioners appointed by His Excellency John Pope Hennessy to inquire into the working of the Contagious Diseases Ordinance, 1867.

1881
Herbert, Robert. Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 26 July 1881 ; -- for, "copy or extracts of any despatches from the governor of Hong Kong in 1877 and in 1881 respecting restrictions laid upon the Chinese merchants, with a view of reserving the central portion of the town of Victoria for English and foreign firms:", "and, of copy or extracts of despatches respecting the attempts made to drive out the Chinese by regulations as to Chinese graves, sanitation, and the compulsory publication of Chinese partnership."

1882
Courtney, Leonard Henry. Return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons dated 13 February 1882 for "Copy or extracts of further correspondence regarding the sanitary condition of Hong Kong and alleged restrictions upon the Chinese (in continuance of the Return to the Address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated the 26th day of July 1881. H.C. 426)".

1887
Post office mail contract (East India and China) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 21 March 1887 ; - for, copy "of a contract, dated the 18th day of March 1887, for the conveyance of the East India and China mails, together with a copy of the minute of the Treasury with regard thereto."

1888
East India and China (Exports and imports) : Return, to an order of the Honourable the House of commons, dates 12 April 1888 ; for Return "for each year since 1870, of the value, computed or declared, of the manufacture, produce, and bullion. -- 1. Exported from the United Kingdom to India and China, and Hong Kong. 2. Imported into the United Kingdom from India, China, and Hong Kong. 3. Exported from India to China and Hong Kong. 4. Imported into India from China and Hong Kong."

1897
Post Office (East India, China, and Australia mails ; and Australian mails). Return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 18th June 1897 ; -- for, copy of contracts (2), dated 25th May 1897, which have been entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company and the Orient Steam Navigation Company, respectively, for (1) the eastern and part of the Australian mail service, (2) the other part of the Australian mail service, together with copy of the Treasury minute thereon, dated 29th May 1897.

1901
Wars in South Africa and China (cost and expenditure) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 30 April 1901, for : return of estimated cost of wars in South Africa and China, showing how the expenditure is to be met.

1902
Wars in South Africa and China, cost and expenditure. Return to an order of the honourable the House of Commons, dated 17 April 1902.

1903
Return to an address of the Honourable The House of Commons, dated 4 March 1903 ; -- for, "return giving modus vivendi adopted with regard to consular jurisdiction in International Settlement at Shanghai."

1903
Wars in South Africa and China (cost and expenditure) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 27 April 1903, for : return showing (1) the estimated amount of war charges in South Africa and China incurred up to the 31st day of March 1903 ; (2) how these charges have been met ; and (3) how the money borrowed has been raised.

1907
Chung, Wallace B. Post office (Liverpool and Hong Kong mail contract) : return to an order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 12 March 1907, for copy "of the contract, dated the 2nd day of February 1907, with the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, for the conveyance of the mails between Liverpool and Hong Kong."

Griffith John ist Missionar der London Missionary Society in Hankou (Hubei), Hunan und Sichuan. Er gründet Schulen und Spitäler. 1861 reist er von Shanghai und gründet über 100 Missionen in Hubei und Hunan. Er kehrt 1912 nach England zurück.

Guo Songtao besucht am 30. Dez. 1878 als erster Chinese ein Theaterstück von William Shakespeare : Hamlet : a tragedy in five acts as arragned for the stage by Henry Irving im Lyceum Theatre in London.
Er schreibt im Tagebuch (Jan. 1879) : "In the evening, I was invited to go to London Lyceum Theatre to see a Shakespeare production. Emphasis was placed on the lively and attractive plot design of the play, and not on florid language and ornate style".

Franck, Sebastian. Weltbuch : Spiegel und Bildtniss des gantzen Erdbodens : in vier Büchern, nemlich in Asiam, Aphricam, Europam, und Americam gestelt und abeilt. (Tübingen : Morhart, 1534). [Enthält Eintragungen über China].
books.google.ch.

Huttich, Johann ; Grynaeus, Simon. Die New welt, der landschaften unnd Insulen, so bis hie her allen Altweltbeschrybern vnbekant, jungst aber von den Portugalesern vnnd Hispaniern jm nidergenglichen Meer herfunden. : sambt den Sitten unnd Gebreuchen der inwonenden Völcker… (Strassburg : Durch Georgen Vlricher von Andla, 1534). [Enthält Marco Polo, Hayton].
archive.org.

Jovius, Paulus [Giovio, Paolo]. Historiarum sui temporis tomi duo. (Florentiae : Torrentinus, 1550-1552). ["There are there [Guangzhou] printers who print according to our own method books containing histories and rites].

Escalante, Bernardino de. Primera historia de China. Comentada y publicada por Carlos Sanz. (Sevilla : En Casa de la biuda de Alonso Escrivano, 1577). = Escalante, Bernardino de. A discourse of the navigation which the Portugales doe make to the realmes and provinces of the east partes of the worlde, and of the knowledge that growes by them of the great thinges which are in the dominions of China. ... Translated out of Spanish into English, by J[ohn] Frampton. B.L. (London : T. Dawson, 1579). = Escalante, Bernardino de. An account of the empire of China. (Bad Mergentheim : Ascanio, 2008).

The history of travayle in the West and East Indies, and other countreys lying eyther way, towardes the fruitfull and ryche Moluccaes : as Moscouia, Persia, Arabia, Syria, Aegypte, Ethiopia, Guinea, China in Cathayo, and Giapan : with a discourse of the Northwest passage : in the hande of our Lorde be all the corners of the earth. Gathered in parte, and done into Englyshe by Richarde Eden. Newly set in order, augmented, and finished by Richarde Willes. (London : Richarde Iugge, 1577).
[Enthält] : Perera, Galeotto [Pereira, Galeote]. Certayne reportes of the prouince China. [Erster englischer Artikel über China].
archive.org.

Nicholas, Thomas. The strange and marueilous newes lately come from the great kingdome of Chyna : which adioyneth to the East Indya. Translated out of the Castlyn tongue, by T.N. (London : Thomas Gardyner and Thomas Dawson, 1577).
quod.lib.umich.edu.

[Polo, Marco]. The most noble and famous trauels of Marcus Paulus, one of the nobilitie of the state of Venice, into the East partes of the world, as Armenia, Persia, Arabia, Tartary, with many other kingdoms and prouinces, no lesse pleasant, than profitable, as appeareth by the table, or contents of this booke : most necessary for all sortes of persons, and especially for trauellers. Translated by John Frampton, from a Spanish translation of the Venetian version by Rodrigo Arcedia. (London : Printed by Ralph Newbery, 1579).

Osório, Jerónimo. The history of the Portuguese during the reign of Emmanuel ; containing all their discoveries, from the coast of Africk to the farthest parts of China ; their battles by sea and land, their sieges, and other memorable exploits ; with a description of those countries, and a particular account of the religion, government, and customs of the natives ; including also, their discovery of the Brazils, and their wars with the Moors. Written originally in Latin by Jerome Osorio. Now first transl. into English by James Gibbs. Vol. 1-2. (London : A. Millar, 1752). Übersetzung von Osório, Jerónimo. De rebus Emanuelis Regis Lusitaniae. (Colonia : Agrippina, 1580).
archive.org.

Poza, Andrés de. Hydrografia la mas curiosa que hasta aqui ha salido a luz, en que de mas de vn derrotero general se ensena la nauegacion por altura y derrota y la del Este Oeste, con la graduacion de los puertos y la nauegacion al Catayo por cinco vias diferentes. (Bilbao : Impresso con priuilegio real por Mathias Mares, 1585). [Über Navigation, über fünf verschiedene Seewege nach China].
fondosdigitales.us.es.

Fróis, Luis. Fernere Zeitung ausz Japon, desz dwsz zwey vnnd achtzigsten, drey vnd achtzigsten, vnd vier vnd achtzigsten Jars ; sampt langstgewünschter frölicher Bottschafft, ausz der Haydnischen Landschafft China, desz 83. vnnd 84. Jars: Von dem daselbst angehenden Christenthumb. Gezogen ausz Briefen der Societet Iesv… (Dilingen : Getruckt durch Joannem Mayer, 1586).

Martinez, Pedro. Sendtschreiben auss den weitverhümpten Landschafften China, Japon un[d] India, dess sechs vnnd achtzigisten, vnnd siben vnd achtzigisten Jahrs : sampt angehenckter Erzehlung eines mercklichen Schiffbruchs, wie in andern schreiben dess P. Petri Martonez an den ehrwürdigen P. General der Societet Iesv den 9 Decembris, Anno 1586 gethan, vermeldet wirdt. [Hrsg. von Christoph Rosenbusch]. (Dilingen : Johannem Mayer, 1589).
reader.digitale-sammlungen.de Avvisi della Cina et Giapone, del fine dell'anno 1586. (1588).
reader.digitale-sammlungen.de.

Gonzàlez de Mendoza, Juan. Ein neuwe, kurze, hochwarhafftige Beschreibung dess Königreichs China : in hispanischer Sprach beschrieben, und nunmehr in hoch teutssch gebracht von Johann Kellner. (Franckfurt am Mayn : Sigmund Feyrabend, 1589).

Sande, Duarte de. De missione legatorum Iaponensium ad Romanam Curiam ; rebusq in Europa, ac toto itinere animaduersis dialogus, ex ephemeride ipsorum legatorum collectus, & in sermonem Latinum versus. ([Macao] In Macaensi portu Sinici regni : In domo Societatis Iesu cum facultate Ordinarij, & Superiorum, 1590). [Vorwort : Valignano, Alessandro. Visitator Societatis Iesu in provincia Orientali (1589). Eines der ersten Werke in Latein, das in Macao gedruck wird].

An excellent treatise of the kingdome of China, and of the estate and gouernement thereof. Printed in Latine at Macao ... 1590, and written dialogue-wise. The speakers are Linus, Leo, and Michael. (Macao : [s.n.], 1590).

Marlowe, Christopher. Tamburlaine the Great : who, from a Scythian shephearde, by his rare and woonderfull conquests, became a most puissant and mightye monarque, and for his tyranny, and terrour in warre, was tearmed, The scourge of God : devided into two tragicall discourses. (London : Printed by Richard Jhones, 1590). (Three centuries of drama, English, 1516-1641). [Uraufführung 1987 in London].
gutenberg.org.

Coxe, William. Die neuen Entdeckungen der Russen zwischen Asien und America : nebst der Geschichte der Eroberung Siberiens und des Handels der Russen und Chineser. Aus dem Englischen übers. (Frankfurt a.M. : J.G. Fischer, 1783).

Mayers, William Frederick. Treaties between the Empire of China and foreign powers together with regulations for the conduct of foreign trade, conventions, agreements, regulations, etc. (Shanghai : North China Herals, 1906).

Herrmann, Albert. Einleitung : die chinesischen Quellen, Zentralasien nach Ssě-ma Ts’ien und den Annalen der Han-Dynastie. (Berlin : Weidmann, 1910). (Quellen und Forschungen zur alten Geschichte und Geographie ; 21). [Sima Qian].

David-Néel, Alexandra. Mystiques et magiciens du Tibet. (Paris : Plon, 1929).
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David-Neel, Alexandra. Heilige und Hexer : Glaube und Aberglaube im Lande des Lamaismus ; nach eigenen Erlebnissen in Tibet dargestellt. Mit 22 Abbildungen und einer Karte. (Leipzig : Brockhaus, 1931).
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David-Néel, Alexandra. Im Land der Dämonen. (Würzburg : Arena-Verlag, 1977). (Wissenschaft und Abenteuer).

Kleines Laotse-Brevier : zur Stärkung und Erleuchtung des Herzens in der Bedrängnis des Tages. Zusammengestellt aus dem Tao te king [von] Ferdinand Holzmann. (Hamburg : Holzmann, 1950). [Laozi. Dao de jing].

Reps, Paul. Zen flesh, Zen bones : a collection of Zen and Pre-Zen writings. (Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday, 1957).
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Ohne Worte – ohne Schweigen : 101 Zen-Geschichten und andere Zen-Texte aus vier Jahrtausenden. Hrsg. von Paul Reps ; aus dem Englischen von Ulli Olvedi. (Bern : O.W. Barth, 1976).

Kunst Ostasiens. Katalog zur Ausstellung Berlin Sept. bis Nov. 1963. [Wissenschaftliche Bearbeitung : Roger Goepper und Beatrix von Ragué]. (Berlin : Staatliche Museen Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ostasiatische Kunstabteilung, 1963).

Meienberger, Norbert. Entwicklungshilfe unter dem Völkerbund : ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der internationalen Zusammenarbeit in der Zwischenkriegszeit unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der technischen Hilfe an China. (Winterthur : Keller, 1965). Diss. Univ. Zürich, 1965.

Fiedeler, Frank. Hua-shu, das Buch des Verwandelns : Darstelung der Lehre und Übersetzung des Textes : ein Beitrag zum Verständnis chinesischer Philosophie. (Würzburg : E. Schmitt und M. Meyer, 1967). Diss. Univ Erlangen-Nürnberg, 1967.