China and the West

Teignmouth, John Shore. Memoirs of the life, writings and correspondence of Sir William Jones [ID D27057].
1767 Teignmouth : "His excursions into the regions of literature were unlimited ; and as his application was directed with his usual perseverance, he nearly completed his Commentaries, transcribed an Arabic manuscript on Egypt and the Nile, borrowed from Dr. Russel, and copied the keys of the Chinese language, which he wished to learn".

1770 (July) Brief von William Jones an C. Reviczki : "What shall I send in return for your present ? Accept the accompanying ode, which is, at least, valuable for its antiquity. You will perhaps smile : it is not an epithalamium on the Marriage of Antoinette the dauphiness, but contains the eulogium of a very ancient Chinese monarch, whose name, though a monosyllable only, I have forgotten. When I read the works of Confucius, translated by Couplet and others, I was struck with admiration at the venerable dignity of the sentiments, as well as at the poetical fragments, which adorn the discourses of that philosopher. They are selected from the most ancient records of Chinese poetry, and particularly from a work, entitled Shi-king, of which there is a fine copy in the royal library at Paris. I immediately determined to examine the original, and, referring to the volume, after a long study, I succeeded in comparing one of the odes with the version of Couplet, and analysed every work, or, more properly, every figure in it. Of this ode, I now send you a literal translation : it is a composition of wonderful dignity and brevity ; each verse contains four words only ; hence the ellipsis is frequent in it, and the obscurity of the style adds to its sublimity. I have annexed a poetical version, making every verse correspond with the sense of Confucius ; you will judge whether I have succeeded, or not ; it will be sufficient for me, if it please you. You know that this philosopher, whom I may venture to call the Plato of China, lived about six hundred years before the Christian aera ; and he quotes this ode, as very ancient in his time. It may, therefore, be considered a a most precious gem of antiquity, which proves, that poetry has been the admiration of all people, in all ages, and that it every where adopts the same images…"

1770 (9. Aug) Brief von C. Reviczki an William Jones.
"I am exceedingly obliged to you for the extraordinary composition with which you favoured me ; it is, indeed, a literary curiosity. But pray inform me when you learned the Chinese language : I did not suspect that this was one of your accomplishments ; but there are no bounds to your acquisitions as a linguist. I am the more delighted with this little performance, as I can rely upon it as a faithful translation from the Chinese language, or which the few things we have translated appear very suspicious ; it has not only the merit of being very ancient, but, in your version, appears even elegant."

1770 Teignmouth : The letter C. Reviczki to William Jones (Oct. 16) was received by Mr. Jones, after his return to England… The account which ge gives of his success in deciphering an ode of Confucius, is a remarkable proof of his ardour for universal literature, and of his invincible application in the pursuit of it. He had before acquired the keys of the Chinese language, and having accidentally discovered, through the medium of an inelegant translation, a treasure locked up in it, he applies them skilfully, and, with great perseverance, obtains access to it.

1771 (3. Juni) Brief von William Jones an J. Wilmot.
"I am sorry the characters you sent me are not Persian, but Chinese, which I cannot decipher without a book, which I have not at present, but, tous Chinois qu’ils sont, I shall be able to make them out, when the weather will permit me to sit in the Bodleian. In the mean time, I would advise you to enquire after a native of China, who is now in London. I cannot recollect where he lodges, but shall know when I come to town, which will be to-morrow or Saturday."

Fan Cunzong : We know very little how Jones learned his Chinese. This letter gives us an idea of his knowledge of Chinese and a clue as to the assistance he may have received in his Chinese studies. So far as I can ascertain, there were at least two natives of China in London in the ‘seventies, and it is almost certain that Jones knew both. One of them, by the name of Tan Chetqua = Tan Chitqua, a modeler from Canton, had was in England 1769-1772, he was the fashion in London. His lodging at Mr. Marr’s in the Strand was much frequented by savants, connoisseurs and artists. The Royal Family had been pleased to receive him and had given him several commissions for small modeled portraits. In the exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1770 he was represented by a bust. Jones must have met him and may have consulted him about some difficult characters.

1789 (20. Okt.) Brief von William Jones an Mr. Justice Hyde.
"I have written four papers for our expiring society, on very curious subjects, and have prepared materials for a discourse on the Chinese…"

1791 (18. Okt.) Brief von William Jones an Joseph Banks.
"I believe I shall send a box of inestimable manuscripts, Sanscrit and Arabic, to your friendly care. If I return to England, you will restore them to me ; if I die in my voyage to China, or my journey through Persia, you will dispose of them as you please."

Benjamin Franklin : To John Bartram. London 11 January, 1770.
Rhubarb seed. – Chinese cheese
My ever dear friend,
I received your kind letter of November 29t6h, with the parcel of seeds, for which I am greatly obliged to you. I cannot make you adequate returns in kind ; but I send you however some of the true rhubarb seed, which you desire. I had it from Mr. English, who lately received a medal of the Society of Arts for propagating it. I send also some green dry peas, highly esteemed here as the best for making pea soup ; and also some Chinese caravances, with Father Navarette's account of the universal use of a cheese made of them in China, which so excited my curiosity, that I caused inquiry to be made of Mr. Flint, who lived many years there, in what matter the cheese was made, and I send you his answer. I have since learned, that some runnings of salt (I suppose runnet) is put into water, when the meal is in it, to turn it to curds. I think we have caravances with us, but I know not whether they are the same with these, which actually came from China. They are said to be of great increase.

Herstellung von Porzellan mit Chinoiserie-Dekor in der 1763 gefründeten Manufaktur im Schooren, Kilchberg, ZH.

Erstellung des Jardin anglo-chinois und des pavillon chinois im Château de Chantilly für Louis-Joseph, prince de Condé, durch Jean-François Leroy.

Rodrigo de Castro ist Gouverneur von Macao.

Giuseppe Panzi kommt in China an.

Louis Antoine de Poirot ist als Maler am Hof von Kaiser Qianlong tätig.

Haller, Albrecht von. Usong [ID D11893].
Zhu Yanbing : Haller setzt sich im Roman Usong mit China auseinander. Der erste Band ist die Geschichte von Usong und dem Geschlecht der Tschengiden, der zweite die Geschichte von Usongs Staat und seine Staatsregierung, der dritte die Geschichte von Usongs Kindern und der vierte das endgültige Bekenntnis Usongs zum Christentum.
Usong ist Sohn des Tschengiden Timurtasch, eines Nachkommen des einst über China herrschenden mongolischen kaiserlichen Hauses. Er erhält eine konfuzianische Erziehung und gerät mit 14 Jahren in einem Krieg gegen China in Gefangenschaft von Liewang, eines chinesischen Unterkönigs. Liewang ist ein Herr, der "alle Gaben des Verstandes vereinigt : ein würdiger Urengkel des Kon-fu-zee" und seine Tocher Liosua "ein konfuzianisches Mustermädchen". Usong ist bei Liewang als Gärtner tätig und wird "in den Gesetzen, den Gebräuchen und den Wissenschaften eines Reiches unterwiesen, das seit so vielen Jahren der Mittelpunkt der Ordnung und der öffentlichen Glückseligkeit ist". Aber seine heimliche Liebe zu Liosua verärgert Liewang und er wird in eine entlegene Provinz verbannt. Er flieht über Ägypten nach Venedig, wo er nicht die knechtische Unterwerfung, die in China herrscht, vorfindet. Dann reist er über die Türkei, Arabien nach Persien. Er kommt auf den persischen Thron und schickt eine Gesandtschaft nach China, um Liosua abzuholen und zu heiraten. Er überlegt, wie er das verkommene Perserreich wieder in Ordnung bringen soll und sammelt alles in seinem Gedächtnis, was er von den alten Weisen in China gelernt, und was er sonst vom erfahrenen Liewang gehört hatte. Er strebt bei seiner Staatsregierung nach einer west-östlichen Synthese, bekennt sich aber letzten Endes zum Christentum.
Die Frankfurter gelehrten Anzeigen kommentieren : Usong, Held des Romans "ist von Anfgang bis Ende höchst tugendhaft, trägt alle zum Throne erforderlichen Qualitäten in einem gelben Gürtel, der Zeuge seiner kaiserlichen Abkunft ist, liefert Schatten, rettet Prinzessinnen, erobert Reiche, macht herrliche Gesetze, am Ende ein Testament und stirbt".
Haller zeigt hinsichtlich der Handlung und des Schauplatzes nur eine äussere Berühung mit konfuzianischen staatsphilosphischen Ideen.

Liu Weijian : Haller schreibt über die Organisation des konfuzianischen Staates, indem er die Lebensgeschichte des persischen Kaisers Usong erzählt. Usong praktiziert das konfuzianische Staatsideal und wird zum musterhaften Herrscher eines Landes. Demgegenüber werden Laozis Anhänger negativ skizziert : Sie glauben nicht an Gott ; sie relativieren den Unterschied zwischen Gut und Böse und streiten die moralische Überlegenheit der Tugend gegenüber dem Laster ab ; sie seien ein Haufen Bonzen und Anhänger des chinesischen Epicurs und schwärmen nur für den leiblichen Genuss.
Damit wird die pauschale moralische Verurteilung des Taoismus durch die Missionare wiederum in die deutsche Literatur aufgenommen.

Ulrich Faust : Die Geschichte des chinesischen Mandarins Oel-fu, eines Jüngers des Konfzius, trägt autobiographische Züge. Aber die Chinabegeisterung ist einer kritischen Haltung gewichen. Haller sagt von Usong : Zu sehr hatte er sich in China überzeugt, dass ohne die Furcht des obersten Wesens die Menschen zwar eine äusserliche Ehrfurcht beobachten, aber ihren Begierden kein genugsam kräftiges Gleichgewicht entgegensetzen können.

Walpole, Horace. The history of the modern taste in gardening. In : Walpole, Horace. Anecdotes of painting in England : with some account of the principal artists. Vol. 1-4. (Strawberry Hill : Printed for Thomas Farmer, 1762-1771). Vol. 4 (1771).
In the first edition Walpole had caricatured Chinese gardens as marred by excessive artificiality and 'unsubstantial tawdriness' in an early attempt to discredit this putative model for English innovations.

Shebbeare, John. An authentic narrative of the oppressions of the islanders of Jersey [ID D27193].
"At the same time those reflections which arise on the various circumstances of the human conduct and of national progression, are of equal advantage and application, whether they be mad on the immense and populous empire of China, or on the little isle of Jersey."
"Men of legislative genius, who conquer others, will, by discernment in the principles of humankind, anticipate the slow progression of time, and either institute a new system of polity, both religious and civil, like Naco Capec, or like the Tartar who conquered China, adopt the establishments of those whom they have subdued."

Thomas Jefferson recommended to Robert Skipwith, his brother-in-law, to read Chinese books, which he regarded as among the best books on general subject available in America.

Thomas Jefferson regarded Monticello, Near Charlottesville, Va. as a building, in which he could test his architectural ideas and experiments. He adopted a Chinese style, making drawings of Chinese lattice.

Benjamin Franklin : To Cadwallader Evans. London, 18 July, 1771
Method of cultivating silk in China.
Dear Doctor,
I wrote to you on the 4th instant, and sent you a paper of observations on your specimens of silk, drawn up by Mr. Patterson, who is noted here in that trade, with a specimen of Italian silk as a copy for our people to imitate. But they must not be discouraged if they should not come up to the lustre of it, that being the very finest, and from a particular district in Italy, none other being equal to it from any other district or any other country.
The European silk I understand is all yellow, and most of the India silk. What comes from China is white. In Ogilby's account of that country, I find that, in the province of Chekiang, "they prune their mulberry trees once a year, as we do our vines in Europe, and suffer them not to grow up to high trees, because through long experience they have learned, that the leaves of the smallest and youngest trees make the best silk, and know thereby how to distinguish the first spinning of the threads from the second, viz. the first is that which comes from the young leaves, that are gathered in March, with which they feed their silkworms ; and the second is of the old summer leaves. And it is only the change of food, as to the young and old leaves, which makes the difference in the silk. The prices of the first and second spinning differ among the Chineses. The best silk is that of March, the coarsest of June, yet both in one year ". I have copied this passage to show, that in Chekiang they keep the mulberry trees low ; but I suppose the reason to be, the greater facility of gathering the leaves. It appears too by this passage, that they raise two crops a year in that province, which may account for the great plenty of silk there. But perhaps this would not answer with us, since it is not practiced in Italy, though it might be tried. Chekiang is from twenty-seven to thirty-one degrees of north latitude. Duhalde has a good deal on the Chinese management of the silk business.

Benjamin Franklin in Europe : he spent some time on learning how to make Chinese products. He took time out of his busy schedule to visit European factories in order to find 'the difference of workmanship' in making Chinese products. Franklin visited the china pottery manufactures and silk mill in Derby. He found that 'there is something from all the China works in England'.

Franklin, Benjamin. The autobiography of Benjamin Franklin : 1706-1757. (Auckland : Floating Press, 1793).
http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/Fra2Aut.html.
"But mark how luxury will enter families, and make a progress, in spite of principle: being call'd one morning to breakfast, I found it in a China bowl, with a spoon of silver! They had been bought for me without my knowledge by my wife, and had cost her the enormous sum of three-and-twenty shillings, for which she had no other excuse or apology to make, but that she thought her husband deserv'd a silver spoon and China bowl as well as any of his neighbors. This was the first appearance of plate and China in our house, which afterward, in a course of years, as our wealth increas'd, augmented gradually to several hundred pounds in value."

Smollett, Tobias. Expedition of Humphrey Clinker. (London, Printed for W. Johnston and B. Collins, 1771).
To Sir WATKIN PHILLIPS, of Jesus college, Oxon.
DEAR KNIGHT,
"The nosegays were torn from one another's hands and bosoms; the glasses and china went to wreck; the tables and floors were strewed with comfits."
To Dr LEWIS
"Know then, I have made divers desperate leaps at those upper regions; but always fell backward into this vapour-pit, exhausted and dispirited by those ineffectual efforts; and here we poor valetudinarians pant and struggle, like so many Chinese gudgeons, gasping in the bottom of a punch-bowl."
To Sir WATKIN PHILLIPS, of Jesus college, Oxon.
DEAR PHILLIPS,
"Poor Humphry was so disconcerted at this double mistake, that he dropt the china dish, which broke into a thousand pieces; then, falling down upon his knees, remained in that posture gaping, with a most ludicrous aspect of distress."
To Dr LEWIS.
DEAR DICK,
"All these three ladies have at this time the same number of horses, carriages, and servants in and out of livery; the same variety of dress; the same quantity of plate and china; the like ornaments in furniture: and in their entertainments they endeavour to exceed one another in the variety, delicacy, and expence of their dishes."
"The desert consisted of faded fruit and iced froth, a good emblem of our landlady's character; the table-beer was sour, the water foul, and the wine vapid; but there was a parade of plate and china, and a powdered lacquey stood behind every chair, except those of the master and mistress of the house, who were served by two valets dressed like gentlemen."

Katharina II. ist beeinflusst von Designs of Chinese buildings by William Chambers. Sie übersetzt das Buch ins Russische.

Osbeck, Pehr. A voyage to China and the East Indies [ID D1958].
"The painting of this country, representing men and their employments, trees, plants, flowers, fruit, birds, and the like, by their lively colours compensate for the want of art."

Diogo Fernandes Salema e Saldanha ist Gouverneur von Macao.

Wieland, Christoph Martin. Der goldene Spiegel [ID D11894].
Quelle : Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste. Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de Chine [ID D1819]. [Ji, Junxiang. Zhao shi gu er].

Zhu Yanbing : Wieland bezieht sich folgendermassen auf China : In der Einleitung macht er eine fiktive Bemerkung, dass der Roman ursprünglich eine scheschianische Handschrift war, über chinesische und lateinische Übersetzung zu ihm gelangte und von ihm ins Deutsche übersetzt wurde. Um die Authentizität seiner fiktiven Bemerkung zu bekräftigen, eröffnet er seinen Roman mit einer Zueignungsschrift des fiktiven chinesischen Übersetzers an den Kaiser Tai-Tsu, "den glorwürdigsten Sohn des Himmels", in der Autor seine Forderungen an die deutschen Fürsten dem chinesischen Übersetzer in den Mund legt : "Ihrer Majestät lebhaftestes Verlangen ist, Ihre Völker glücklich zu sehen“. Im Anschluss schreibt er, dass sein Buch "eine Art Auszug aus der Geschichte der Könige von Scheschian" sei, die den Prinzen aus dem Hause des Kaisers Tai-Tsu Begriffe und Maximen einflössen könnte, von deren Gebrauch oder Nichtgebrauch das Glück der sinensischen Provinzen grossenteils abhängen dürfte.
Wieland zeigt den deutschen Fürsten ein "raum- und zeitloses Idealbild". Es wird geschildert, wie dumme Könige das Land Scheschian ruinieren und wie ein weiser und tugendhafter Herrscher es wieder "von der untersten Stufe des Elends bis zum Gipfel der Nationalglückseligkeit" führt. Er verherrlicht die Thronbesteigung Tifans, der von einem Lehrer nach chinesischem Vorbild erzogen worden ist. Schun, "der beste unter allen sinensichen Grosskönigen" war ein sagenhafter König, den Konfuzius und seine Nachfolger hochpriesen und idealisierten und ihren jeweiligen Herrschern als nachahmenswertes Vorbild vorhalten und der Autor führt dieses Vorbild den deutschen Fürsten vor. Der König ist "Statthalter der Gottheit" und vollzieht auf Erden die gesetzgebende und ausübende Macht. Der Adel bildet den ersten Stand und hat "ein angeborenes Recht auf alle obersten Staats- und Kriegsbedienungen" inne. Aber sein Mitspracherecht bei der Staatsregierung wird beschränkt. Die Kinder aller Klassen geniessen eine den "Bedürfnissen einer jeden Klasse" entsprechende Erziehung.

Liu Weijian : Christoph Martin Wieland kritisiert den Missbrauch des Menschenverstandes durch die Verkehrung der "Natur der sittlichen Dinge" und die Beschönigung "lasterhafter, unmenschlicher Handlungen" : Diejenigen, die sich solcher Vergehen schuldig gemacht hätten, wären von Konfuzius als Betrüger verschrieen worden, wohingegen sie bei Laozi aber "Weise" genannt würden.

Adrian Hsia : Das oberste Gebot im Zeitalter der Aufklärung ist die vernünftige Natur. Der chinesische Sagenkönig Shun ist, nach Wieland, der idealste aller Herrsscher, weil er nach dem konfuzianischen Ideal erzogen worden ist : nämlich zur Selbstvervollkommnung und dann als Patriarch der Familie und zuletzt als Landesvater. Dabei ist das Massgebende die 'Güte der Sitten'... Wieland sieht auch Nutzen in der geregelten zeremoniellen Höflichkeit der Chinesen... und will lediglich den Aberglauben beseitigen und einen vernünftigen Gottesdienst eingeführt sehen, um das höchste Wesen zu verehren.

Ulrich Faust : Die Feindschaft gegen den kontemplativen Stand der Ya-faous ist die literarische Spiegelung der Polemik, die der Aufhebung des Jesuitenordens im Jahre 1773 und der 1782 erfolgten Unterdrückung von 700 österreichischen Klöstern vorausging. Die Aversion gegen das "Monchsunwesen" wird auf einem asiatischen Schauplatz gezeigt.