China and the West

Benjamin Franklin was amazed by Chinese technology in navigation. He was very impressed by the well practice of the Chinese, to divide the hold of a great ship into a number of separate chambers by partitions tightly caulked. He applied the technology of the division of ships into watertight sections to a proposal to institute passenger service between France and the United States.
"As the vessels are not to be laden with goods, their holds may without inconvenience be divided into separate apartments after the Chinese manner, and each of those apartments caulked tight so as to keep out water. In which case if a leak should happen in one apartment, that only would be affected by it, and the others would be free ; so that the ship would not be so subject as others to founder and sink at sea. This being known would be a great encouragement to passengers".
Franklin began to study the Chinese way of rowing a boat. For him, the Chinese method differed from that customary in the West. "In the Chinese way, the oars being worked two-a-stern as we scull, or on the sides with the same kind of motion, being hung parallel to the keel on a rail and always acting in the water, not perpendicular to the sides as ours are, not lifted out at every stroke, which is a loss of time, and the boat in the interval loses motion. They see our manner, and we theirs, but neither are disposed to learn of or copy the other".

Joseph Hager studiert Geschichte und orientalische Sprachen an den Universitäten Wien und Rom. Er reist in Italien, Frankreich, Spanien, Deutschland und Holland, um sich Wissen des Chinesischen in den grossen Bibliotheken anzueignen. Zwei Jahre lebt er in der Königlichen Botschaft in Konstantinopel, wo er Arabisch lernt.

Die ersten Lazaristen kommen in Beijing an und ersetzen die Jesuiten.

Die Suche nach Cai Ruoxiang wird aufgegeben. Er flieht nach Goa, reist nach Thailand und kehrt nach China zurück um im Untergrund zu arbeiten.

Yang Zhide kehrt nach Jiangxi zurück und kommt in Linjiang (Jiangxi) in Gefangenschaft.

Alexander de Gouvea kommt in Beijing an.

Manuel Corripio ist Prokurator der Dominikaner in China.

Jean-Joseph Ghislain bildet die Schüler des Seminars der Lazaristen-Mission aus.

Alexander de Gouvea ist als Bischof und Priester in Beijing tätig.

Nicolas-Joseph Raux wird Superior der französischen Mission in Beijing.

James Watt übernimmt für die Dampfmaschine das Kolbensystem mit Doppelwirkung, dessen Vorbild der chinesische Blasbalg ist.

Alexander de Gouvea wird Mathematiker und Vize-Präsident des Astronomischen Amtes.

Nicolas-Joseph Raux wird Mitglied des Mathematischen Amtes in Beijing.

Antonio Montucci wird Englisch-Lehrer am Tolomei-College in Siena.

Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy wird Mitglied der Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettrres.

Jean-Gabriel-Taurin Dufresse gerät in Gefangenschaft in Chengdu und wird nach Beijing gebracht, bis ihm die Ausreise nach Macao erlaubt wird.

Herder, Johann Gottfried. Fragment einer Abhandlung über die Mythologie, besonders über die indische.
Herder schreibt : Um zu einem Anblick des Ganzen zu kommen muss man zuerst die allgemeine Vernunft-Charte einzelner Völker wohl aufnehmen ; und offenbar sind unter diesen die unvermischten, alten, policirten Nationen die merkwürdigsten, wenigstens die nächsten für eine allgemeinere Betrachtung. Bei ihnen siehet man nicht nur was man auch bei barbarischen Völkern gewahr wird, Eigenheit und Originalität, sondern auch die Methode des Fortganges in den Wirkungen ihrer Seelenkräfte, bis auf den Punct, über den sie nicht hinauskonnten und also stillstanden oder sich unter einander verwirrten. Das schönste Feld dieser Betrachtung bleibt immer die griechische Mythologie und Dichtkunst : ihm zur Seiten würden die Ägypter und die Mythologien des Vorder-Asiens stehen, wenn wir aus den ältesten Zeiten mehres von ihnen wüssten ; indessen bleiben sie auch in den schmalsten Bruchstücken ihrer Tradition und Zeyt sehr merkwürdig. Die Völker des östlichen Asiens aber geben uns dafür eine desto vollere Ernte. Indien, Tibet, Sina und Japan nebst den angränzenden Ländern sind grosse Götzentempel, in welchen Vernunft und Einbildungskraft, viel sonderbare Formen erdacht, viel ungeheuere Bilder aufgestellt und verewiget haben. Das letzte Volk Asiens, das sich des höchsten Alterthums rühmet, die Sineser, haben nichts historisch-gewisses, das über das 722. Jahr von unsrer Zeitrechnung hinausginge. Die Reiche des Fohi und Hoangti sind Mythologie und was vor Fohi hergeht, das Zeitalter der Geister oder der personificrten Elemente, wird von den Sinesen selbst als dichtende Allegorie betrachtet.

Ulrich Faust : Herder fasst das Shu jing für seine Zwecke kurz zusammen, ohne mit der Verkürzung den Sinn zu ändern oder durch besondere Erkenntnisse zu bereichern.

Walpole, Horace. Mi Li, a Chinese fairy tale [ID D26928].
Mi Li, prince of China, was brought up by his godmother the fairy Hih, who was famous for telling fortunes with a tea-cup. From that unerring oracle she assured him, that he would be the most unhappy man alive unless he married a princess whose name was the same with her father's dominions. As in all probability there could not be above one person in the world to whom that accident had happened, the prince thought there would be nothing so easy as to learn who his destined bride was. He had been too well educated to put the question to his godmother, for he knew when she uttered an oracle, that it was with intention to perplex, not to inform; which has made people so fond of consulting all those who do not give an explicit answer, such as prophets, lawyers, and any body you meet on the road, who, if you ask the way, reply by desiring to know whence you came. Mi Li was no sooner returned to his palace than he sent for his governor, who was deaf and dumb, qualities for which the fairy had selected him, that he might not instil any bad principles into his pupil; however, in recompence, he could talk upon his fingers like an angel. Mi Li asked him directly who the princess was whose name was the same with her father's kingdom? This was a little exaggeration in the prince, but nobody ever repeats any thing just as they heard it: besides, it was excusable in the heir of a great monarchy, who of all things had not been taught to speak truth, and perhaps had never heard what it was. Still it was not the mistake of kingdom for dominions that puzzled the governor. It never helped him to understand any thing the better for its being rightly stated. However, as he had great presence of mind, which consisted in never giving a direct answer, and in looking as if he could, he replied, it was a question of too great importance to be resolved on a sudden. How came you to know that? Said the prince—This youthful impetuosity told the governor that there was something more in the question than he had apprehended; and though he could be very solemn about nothing, he was ten times more so when there was something he did not comprehend. Yet that unknown something occasioning a conflict between his cunning and his ignorance, and the latter being the greater, always betrayed itself, for nothing looks so silly as a fool acting wisdom. The prince repeated his question; the governor demanded why he asked—the prince had not patience to spell the question over again on his fingers, but bawled it as loud as he could to no purpose. The courtiers ran in, and catching up the prince's words, and repeating them imperfectly, it soon flew all over Pekin, and thence into the provinces, and thence into Tartary, and thence to Muscovy, and so on, that the prince wanted to know who the princess was, whose name was the same as her father's. As the Chinese have not the blessing (for aught I know) of having family surnames as we have, and as what would be their christian-names, if they were so happy as to be christians, are quite different for men and women, the Chinese, who think that must be a rule all over the world because it is theirs, decided that there could not exist upon the square face of the earth a woman whose name was the same as her father's. They repeated this so often, and with so much deference and so much obstinacy, that the prince, totally forgetting the original oracle, believed that he wanted to know who the woman was who had the same name as her father. However, remembring there was something in the question that he had taken for royal, he always said the king her father. The prime minister consulted the red book or court-calendar, which was his oracle, and could find no such princess. All the ministers at foreign courts were instructed to inform themselves if there was any such lady; but as it took up a great deal of time to put these instructions into cypher, the prince's impatience could not wait for the couriers setting out, but he determined to go himself in search of the princess. The old king, who, as is usual, had left the whole management of affairs to his son the moment he was fourteen, was charmed with the prince's resolution of seeing the world, which he thought could be done in a few days, the facility of which makes so many monarchs never stir out of their own palaces till it is too late; and his majesty declared, that he should approve of his son's choice, be the lady who she would, provided she answered to the divine designation of having the same name as her father.
The prince rode post to Canton, intending to embark there on board an English man of war. With what infinite transport did he hear the evening before he was to embark, that a sailor knew the identic lady in question. The prince scalded his mouth with the tea he was drinking, broke the old china cup it was in, and which the queen his mother had given him at his departure from Pekin, and which had been given to her great great great great grandmother queen Fi by Confucius himself, and ran down to the vessel and asked for the man who knew his bride. It was honest Tom O'Bull, an Irish sailor, who by his interpreter Mr. James Hall, the supercargo, informed his highness that Mr. Bob Oliver of Sligo had a daughter christened of both his names, the fair miss Bob Oliver. The prince by the plenitude of his power declared Tom a mandarin of the first class, and at Tom's desire promised to speak to his brother the king of Great Ireland, France and Britain, to have him made a peer in his own country, Tom saying he should be ashamed to appear there without being a lord as well as all his acquaintance.
The prince's passion, which was greatly inflamed by Tom's description of her highness Bob's charms, would not let him stay for a proper set of ladies from Pekin to carry to wait on his bride, so he took a dozen of the wives of the first merchants in Canton, and two dozen virgins as maids of honour, who however were disqualified for their employments before his highness got to St. Helena. Tom himself married one of them, but was so great a favourite with the prince, that she still was appointed maid of honour, and with Tom's consent was afterwards married to an English duke.
Nothing can paint the agonies of our royal lover, when on his landing at Dublin he was informed that princess Bob had quitted Ireland, and was married to nobody knew whom. It was well for Tom that he was on Irish ground. He would have been chopped as small as rice, for it is death in China to mislead the heir of the crown through ignorance. To do it knowingly is no crime, any more than in other countries.
As a prince of China cannot marry a woman that has been married before, it was necessary for Mi Li to search the world for another lady equally qualified with miss Bob, whom he forgot the moment he was told he must marry somebody else, and fell equally in love with somebody else, though be knew not with whom. In this suspence he dreamt, "that he would find his destined spouse, whose father had lost the dominions which never had been his dominions, in a place where there was a bridge over no water, a tomb where nobody ever was buried nor ever would be buried, ruins that were more than they had ever been, a subterraneous passage in which there were dogs with eyes of rubies and emeralds, and a more beautiful menagerie of Chinese pheasants than any in his father's extensive gardens." This oracle seemed so impossible to be accomplished, that he believed it more than he had done the first, which shewed his great piety. He determined to begin his second search, and being told by the lord lieutenant that there was in England a Mr. Banks, who was going all over the world in search of he did not know what, his highness thought he could not have a better conductor, and sailed for England. There he learnt that the sage Banks was at Oxford, hunting in the Bodleian library for a MS. voyage of a man who had been in the moon, which Mr. Banks thought must have been in the western ocean, where the moon sets, and which planet if he could discover once more, he would take possession of in his majesty's name, upon condition that it should never be taxed, and so be lost again to this country like the rest of his majesty's dominions in that part of the world.
Mi Li took a hired post-chaise for Oxford, but as it was a little rotten it broke on the new road down to Henley. A beggar advised him to walk into general Conway's, who was the most courteous person alive, and would certainly lend him his own chaise. The prince travelled incog. He took the beggar's advice, but going up to the house was told the family were in the grounds, but he should be conducted to them. He was led through a venerable wood of beeches, to a menagerie commanding a more glorious prospect than any in his father's dominions, and full of Chinese pheasants. The prince cried out in extasy, Oh! potent Hih! my dream begins to be accomplished. The gardiner, who knew no Chinese but the names of a few plants, was struck with the similitude of the sounds, but discreetly said not a word. Not finding his lady there, as he expected, he turned back, and plunging suddenly into the thickest gloom of the wood, he descended into a cavern totally dark, the intrepid prince following him boldly. After advancing a great way into this subterraneous vault, at last they perceived light, when on a sudden they were pursued by several small spaniels, and turning to look at them, the prince perceived their eyes shone like emeralds and rubies. Instead of being amazed, as Fo-Hi, the founder of his race, would have been, the prince renewed his exclamations, and cried, I advance! I advance! I shall find my bride! great Hih! thou art infallible! Emerging into light, the imperturbed gardiner conducted his highness to a heap of artificial ruins, beneath which they found a spacious gallery or arcade, where his highness was asked if he would not repose himself; but instead of answering he capered like one frantic, crying out, I advance! I advance! great Hih! I advance!—The gardiner was amazed, and doubted whether he was not conducting a madman to his master and lady, and hesitated whether he should proceed—but as he understood nothing the prince said, and perceiving he must be a foreigner, he concluded he was a Frenchman by his dancing. As the stranger too was so nimble and not at all tired with his walk, the sage gardiner proceeded down a sloping valley, between two mountains cloathed to their summits with cedars, firs, and pines, which he took care to tell the prince were all of his honour the general's own planting: but though the prince had learnt more English in three days in Ireland, than all the French in the world ever learnt in three years, he took no notice of the information, to the great offence of the gardiner, but kept running on, and increased his gambols and exclamations when he perceived the vale was terminated by a stupendous bridge, that seemed composed of the rocks which the giants threw at Jupiter's head, and had not a drop of water beneath it—Where is my bride, my bride? cried Mi Li—I must be near her. The prince's shouts and cries drew a matron from a cottage that stood on a precipice near the bridge, and hung over the river—My lady is down at Ford-house, cried the good woman, who was a little deaf, concluding they had called to her to know. The gardiner knew it was in vain to explain his distress to her, and thought that if the poor gentleman was really mad, his master the general would be the properest person to know how to manage him. Accordingly turning to the left, he led the prince along the banks of the river, which glittered through the opening fallows, while on the other hand a wilderness of shrubs climbed up the pendent cliffs of chalk, and contrasted with the verdant meads and fields of corn beyond the stream. The prince, insensible to such enchanting scenes, galloped wildly along, keeping the poor gardiner on a round trot, till they were stopped by a lonely tomb, surrounded by cypress, yews, and willows, that seemed the monument of some adventurous youth who had been lost in tempting the current, and might have suited the gallant and daring Leander. Here Mi Li first had presence of mind to recollect the little English he knew, and eagerly asked the gardiner whose tomb he beheld before him. It is nobody's—before he could proceed, the prince interrupted him, And will it never be any body's?—Oh! thought the gardiner, now there is no longer any doubt of his phrenzy—and perceiving his master and the family approaching towards them, he endeavoured to get the start, but the prince, much younger, and borne too on the wings of love, set out full speed the moment he saw the company, and particularly a young damsel with them. Running almost breathless up to lady Ailesbury, and seizing miss Campbell's hand—he cried, Who she? who she? Lady Ailesbury screamed, the young maiden squalled, the general, cool but offended, rushed between them, and if a prince could be collared, would have collared him—Mi Li kept fast hold with one arm, but pointing to his prize with the other, and with the most eager and supplicating looks intreating for an answer, continued to exclaim, Who she? who she? The general perceiving by his accent and manner that he was a foreigner, and rather tempted to laugh than be angry, replied with civil scorn, Why she is miss Caroline Campbell, daughter of lord William Campbell, his majesty's late governor of Carolina—Oh, Hih! I now recollect thy words! cried Mi Li—And so she became princess of China.

Sekundärliteratur

Rosalind Ballaster : The hieroglyphic tales were written between 1766 and 1772 for the amusements of his friends after Walpole's retirement from politics. The collection consists of six tales which demonstrate the enormous hybridity of the eighteenth-century tale as well as Walpole's own eccentric, sometimes vicious, but usually delightful, humour : they satirize the clergy and the literary establishment, play with the reputation of his friends and deploy his antiquarian knowledge, mixing elements from 'The Arabian nights entertainments', fairy tales, Shakespeare, the Bible, and travel literature.
The story allows Walpole to pursue his enthusiasm for debates about gardening and his fluctuating attitude to the cult for Chinoiserie in mid-eighteenth-century England. An early enthusiast for this craze for porcelain, tea, lacquer-work, and architectural imitation of Chinese forms, Walpole called his goldfish pond at his home in Strawberry Hill Po Yang in reference to a lake in Kiangsi province celebrated for its fish. He counted a number of works about China in his extensive library and received with especial delight a French copy of Du Halde's General description of China from Lord Hervey in 1735.
Beyond the specific critique of styles in gardening, the tale illustrates the complexity and attractiveness of China in the western imagination of the eighteenth century. Walpole captures precisely the paradoxial representation of China. Its image as a territory associated through Jesuit account of Confucianism and the longevity of absolutism with hyper-rationalism, conflicts with an equally strong image, prompted by the importation of luxury goods from the region and an ensuing reputation for aesthetic eccentricity, with excesses of fancy bordering on madness.
Walple's tale is itself a piece of Chinoiserie, a nonsensical fragment which mixes Chinese and European elements like the much-coveted porcelain prepared for the export market which depicted English hunting scenes in the familiar blue-and-white pattern. Like the hero of the tale, whose name Mi Li indicates to the reader that he is a mere fabrication, Chineseness is 'lost in translation', becoming an incomprehensible but fascinating sign of otherness. It is not coincidental that this talbe about errors in language transmission also exploits the common representation of Chinese language as just such a non-signifying sign system.
Walpole mocks not China but 'Chinoiserie', and with it the superficial learning of travel-writing and the oriental tale in the period. He provides footnotes that assert authenticity rather than demonstrate it and authorial interventions that expose rather than dispel ignorance.

Paul Nash : The tale is a satire, directed at the East India Company's pursuit of profit and Britain's transforming mercantile-colonial enterprise after the American revolutionary war.
Once the tale is situated in the early 1870s, the pieces of its satiric puzzle come into sharper relief. The two young lovers are associated with two major forces transforming Britain's global enterprise. Caroline with the loss of the American colonies and Mi Li with Britain's growing commercial attraction to China. After the American revolutionary war the East India Company redirected its commercial ambitions away from the Western hemisphere towards the potentialities of the East : to India and the lucrative China trade in tea. Walpole understood that the idea of China was growing antagonistic in Britain. By the early 1780s the China trade was expanding with greater rapidity than even before, and China's recalcitrant attitude to the Company's commercial initiative appeared in many respects unlike anything it had experienced elsewhere.
While the tale's ending holds out the prospect that Britain and China might be able to connect on human ground away from the potential tyranny of mercantile capitalism or imperial dominion, Mi Li's failure to fulfill his oracle suggests this may not happen. Mi Li's attempt to find happiness by connecting with the English can only lead to unhappiness, and his luck is identified with imprudence.

Jones, William. A hymn to Ganga : the argument. In : The works of William Jones. Vol. 6.
"This poem would be rather obscure without geographical notes ; but a short introductory explanation will supply the place of them, and give less interruption to the reader. We are obliged to a late illustrious Chinese monarch names Can-hi, who directed an accurate survey to be made of Potyid or (as it is called by the Arabs) Tebbut, for our knowledge, that a chain of mountains nearly parallel with Imaus…"

George Washington : Diary July 8 (1785).
Washington chose a good place next to the garden wall in his botanical garden and sowed the Chinese flowers seeds given by Mr. Porter and James Craik. He took a detailed record of the procedure he used to plant the seeds. His experiment failed : "Whether these plants are unfit for this climate, or whether covering and thereby hiding them entirely from the Sun the whole winter occasioned them to rot, I know not."